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Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

The 3 features of the multi store model

A

sensory register , short term memory, long term memory

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2
Q

How does information pass through each store in the multi store model

A

Sensory register to stm= attention
STM to LTM= maintenance and elaborative rehearsal
LTM back to STM= retrieval

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3
Q

Who was the multi store model created by

A

Atkinson and shiffrin 1968

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4
Q

Describe the MSM

A

It is a linear model = info flows through in one direction,
3 unitary stores
Passive stores = stores hold on to information before lost or passed on

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5
Q

Features of each store

A

Coding - the formats the brain uses to store info
Duration- how long info can be held before loss
Capacity- how much information how can be stores in each store

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6
Q

Describe sensory register

A

Sensory information from senses detected and recorded automatically. Passes on to stm via attention. Capacity- very large to contain all senses In moment
Coding- modality specific
Duration- very short - 250 milliseconds

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7
Q

How does msm lose info

A

Via displacement or decay

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8
Q

Describe stm

A

Coding- acoustic
Capacity- 5-9 items 7+/-2
Duration- 18-30 seconds
Travels to LTM via elaborative or maintenance rehearsal

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9
Q

Describe LTM

A

Coding - semantic
Duration - forever
Capacity- unlimited
To use info in LTM needs to be passed back to STM via retrieval

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10
Q

Support for MSM
Glanzer and Cunitz

A

1966
Asked to free recall words. Recall stronger in beginning than end. First words enter LTM primary effect , last words in stm recency effect . Middle words displaced. Suggests different stores

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11
Q

Sperling 1960 —- sensory register support

A

Trained pp’s presented with 3 by 4 grid of letters. When presented quickly 1/10th of second, over 75%;pp’s able to recall a row. Suggests all row contained within capacity so sensory memory large.
When asked to recall all letter, only able to recall 4/5 letters therefore info lost as not paid attention to, duration is 250milliseconds to -1 second

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12
Q

Coding of STM

A

Baddeley 1966- gave 4, 10 word lists to 4 pp groups. A - acoustically similar .B- acoustically dissimilar . C- semantically similar .D- semantically dissimilar . Immediate recall worst for A. After 20 minutes worst for C. Supports coding STM acoustic . Supports coding foR LTM semantic

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13
Q

Capacity of STM study

A

Jacobs 1987
Pp’s presented with letters and numbers. 9 numbers recalled, 5 letters (7+/-2). Suggests stm limited . Miller suggested improved by chunking (making small sets of items) reducing total number of items overall

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14
Q

Duration of STM study

A

Peterson and Peterson 1959
Showed 3 letter trigrams, counting backwards to prevent maintenance rehearsal. After 18 seconds recall less than 10%. Suggests information held for 18-30 seconds before dissapearing

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15
Q

Capacity of LTM

A

Wagenaar- 1986
Created diary of over 2400 events during course of six years. Recording of who, what, where and when, found when testing using cues ,75% recall for one particular critical detail after one year. 45% after 5 years. Suggests capacity possibly limitless

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16
Q

Duration of LTM study

A

Bahrick 1975
392 pp’s aged 17-74 tested for memory of old photographs and names of school friends. Findings- recall in matching names to faces 90% after 15 years , 80% for 48 years. Suggests duration large of LTM

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17
Q

What are the three types of LTM

A

Semantic - knowledge of facts, concepts about the world. Declarative . Consciously recalled
Episodic - memory with reference to time and place . Declarative. Consciously recalled
Procedural - muscle based memory. Implicit. Non declarative. Recalled unconsciously

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18
Q

Features of episodic memory

A

Time stamped
Autobiographical
Easy to forget
Emotions at the time influences strength

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19
Q

Feuatures of semantic

A

Not time stamped
Declarative
Not autobiographical
Resistant to forgetting
How deeply processed influences strength

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20
Q

Procedural memory features

A

Non declarative
Not time stamped
Not recalled consciously
Not autobiographical
Resistant to forgetting

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21
Q

What part of the brain does episodic use

A

Codes in prefrontal cortex , stored across the brain connected by hippocampus

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22
Q

What brain region associated with semantic

A

Parahippocampal cortex

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23
Q

What brain region associated with procedural memory

A

Motor cortex and cerrelebellum

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24
Q

Long term memory evaluation - Vargha-Khadem et al

A

1997
Investigated 3 young patients damaged hippocampus but avoided significant damage to nearby parahippocampal cortices. Found all 3 significant episodic amnesia, however able to attend school, speak and recall factual (semantic info) , suggests semantic memory less dependant on hippocampus than episodic . Biological evidence semantic and episodic use different brain regions

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25
Q

Support for types of long term- Clive wearing

A

Case study- 1985
Had retrograde amnesia so cannot remember musical education (episodic) remembers facts about life (semantic) can still play piano (procedural) unable to encode new episodic or semantic memories due to anterograde amnesia, under experimental conditions able to gain new procedural via repetition. Suggests semantic , episodic , procedural seperate processes. Clive lacks episodic completely, procedural functional, cannot encode semantic related due to damaged area of Clive’s brain

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26
Q

Evaluation of Clive wearing

A

Ideographic research allows researchers to study memory that would be impossible experimentally
Cannot generalise findings to how memory works to wider population
Other unknown issues unique to individual explaining certain behaviour

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27
Q

Limitation of different types long term memory

A

May not be truly distinct
Episodic and semantic both declarative
Episodic becomes semantic over time
Link between procedural and semantic - able to produce automatic language, talking fluently unscioulsy

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28
Q

Strength of using brain scanning techniques for long term memory

A

Cognitive brain scanning techniques allowing brain and memory studied scientifically. FMRI’s identify memory associated with brain region. Allowed ideas gained by ideographic vase studies to be studied nomothetic methods , larger healthy samples allowing generalisations

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29
Q

Features of working memory model

A

Phonological loop
Visual spatial sketched
Central executive
Episodic buffer

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30
Q

Who was working memory model created by

A

Baddeley and hitch 1974

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31
Q

Why was working memory model created

A

To replace MSM due to criticisms of stm
stm more complex than just unitary store passing info to LTM.
STM active processor holding different types of info simultaneously while being worked on

32
Q

Sub systems of phonological loop and visual spatial sketch pad

A

VSS - inner scribe and inner cache
PL- primary acoustic store and articulatory control process (inner ear and inner voice)

33
Q

Central executive feature

A

‘Head of the model’ controls attention, receives sense info and filters before passing to sub systems
Limited capacity 4items- working on 1 info at a time

34
Q

Features of phonological loop-

A

Processes auditory coded info
Limited capacity of what can be said in 2 seconds
Primary acoustic store- inner ear - stores words recently heard
Articulatory process- inner voice - holds info via sub vocal repetition

35
Q

Visual spatial sketch pad

A

Processes visual and spatially coded info
Known as ‘Inner eye’
Visual cache - passive store of form and colour
Inner scribe - active store holding relationships between objects in 3D space

36
Q

Episodic buffer

A

Added 2000
Model needed general store to hold and integrate info from VSS, PL, CE

37
Q

Support for WMM; Baddeley

A

Pp’s asked to perform 2 visual tasks tracking moving lights at same as describing angles of letter F. Or verbal and visual tasks
Found performance better when not using same processing suggesting VSS and PLL exist as seperate systems and capacity to VSS can be overwhelmed with visual info

38
Q

Brain scan support for WMM

A

prabhakaran
2000
used brain imaging FMRI scans
Asked pp’s to comple tasks with equal amounts of verbal and spatial info
One condition ; verbal & spatial seperate
2nd condition- info was integrated
Found more activation in prefrontal cortex when info integrated however posterior Bain regions when info not integrated
Suggests Episodic buffer exists i, in prefrontal cortex specialised in combination and temporary staf of visual and verbal info

39
Q

Evaluation of WMM

A

W -criticised by psychologists- central executive as vague . No full explanation of function and not full open to testing
W - impossible to directly observe processes of memory describe in models like WMM, inferences must be made assumptions about cognitive processes, could be incorrect
Lab based- high internal validity low external, mundane realism
S- sees stm as passiv store of info but WMM more accurate in describing how memory is used as an active processor.

40
Q

Explanations for forgetting

A

Pro active and retroactive interference . Retrieval failure

41
Q

Difference between proactive and retroactive interference

A

P- old interferes with new
R- new interferes with old

42
Q

What is interference theory

A

Forget because LTM becomes disrupted by other info while coded

43
Q

When is interference more likely to occur

A

When 2 pieces of info are similar due to response competition

44
Q

When is interference less likely to occur

A

When there is large gap between instances of learning

45
Q

Retroactive interference study

A

Schmidt
2000
Studied using memory of childhood street names
11-79 yr olds, sent questionnaire containing map of area without street names
Found more times individual moved, less likely to recall street names
Negative correlation
Suggests retro active interference
Remembering new street names interferes with previously stored info in LTM

46
Q

Proactive interference study

A

Greenberg and underwood
1950
Asked pp’s to learn 10 paired word lists
Gave pp 48 hours before my recall
Found number of correct recalled word pairs decreased more word pairs previously learnt
Suggests pro active interference as previously learnt words provided interference causing confusion

47
Q

What is cue dependant forgetting

A

Information in LTM forgetting due to a sense of appropriate due encoded at same time (encoding specificity principle)

48
Q

What is context dependant cues

A

Aspects of external environment work as cues to memory e,g sight , smell . Being in different place would inhibit memory as lack environment cues

49
Q

Evidence for cue dependant forgetting

A

Godden and Baddeley
1975
Studied divers, asking to learn new info underwater or on dry land and tested underwater or dry land
Found recall worse if In different context and best if same .
E.g Info recalled best learnt underwater and recalled underwater
Suggests same environment for both learning and recall aids recall by providing context cues

50
Q

What is state dependant cues

A

Aspects of internal environment work as cues to memory e.g emotions, drugs, state of arousal. Being in emotional state would inhibit memory as we lack state dependant cues

51
Q

Evidence for state dependant cues

A

Overton
1972
Asked pp’s to learn material drunk or sober and recall drunk or sober
Recall much worse when info learnt in different internal state. E.g info learnt drunk had better recall when recalled drunk
Suggests same state of both learning and recall aids recall
Evidence for state dependant cues

52
Q

Category/ organisational dependant cues

A

Providing cues relating to organisation aid recall
Most effective cues have fewer things associated with them
Lack of organisation/category cues inhibit memory

53
Q

Evidence for category/organisational cues

A

Tulving and Pealstone
1966
Asked pp’s to learn 48 words
Pp’s uses free recall or recall of o match 12 4 word categories
Found pp significantly recalled more in category condition
Suggests categories acted as cues

54
Q

Evaluation for explanations of forgetting

A
  1. S- has real applications, can develop effective revising strategies for students, theories e.g context cues improve recall, used in development of effective technique cognitive interview
    2- W- interference and cue theory only explain temporary loss of info , may not be true explanation for forgetting.
    W- interference only explains when 2 info similar and learnt close together (time sensitivity) , doesn’t explain forgetting of day to day forgetting
55
Q

What are schemas

A

Packages of info about people and objects in the world around us, use schema as mental shortcuts. When recalling info influenced by schemas

56
Q

What is reconstructive memory

A

Memory not accurate recording of invents, reconstructed In recalling and may produce error (confabulations)

57
Q

What are leading questions

A

Questions implying particular answer influencing how memory is recalled
Either due to actual change to memory (substitution bias explanation or emotional pressure to give particular answer (response bias explanation)

58
Q

What is post event discussion

A

Recalling of events by one witnesses alter accuracy of recall by another witness, could be memory conformity going along with other accounts for social approval

59
Q

Misleading information study

A

Loftus and palmer 1974
pp’s watching videos of car crash
Asked leading questions , question of ‘how fast were cars going when they ? With different verbs (smashes, collided, bumped and hit) most extreme verb faster estimate miles per hour .
Contacted 31.8 . Smashed 40.8.
Suggests misleading info can influence recall

60
Q

Loftus and palmer follow up study

A

Pp’s shown car accident either even hit or smashed
Found pp’s 2x as likely In smashed condition to say yes compared to gut condition even tho no broken glass
Suggests effects of misleading info in form of leading questions can be long lasting and Chang memory via substation rather than response bias

61
Q

EWT
Post event discussion study

A

Gabbert et al
2003
Shows videos of crimes different perspectives shown to pair of pp’s
71% allowed to discuss recalled info not seen compared to 0 no discussion
Suggests witnesses will change account of crime to match other witness testimony
Attempt to seek social approval resulting in memory conformity

62
Q

Bodner et al EWT post event discussion

A

2009
similar experimental setup to Gabbert et al
Discouraged pp’s from sharing info in testimony
Results; shared less info gained from other witnesses
Found when warned about dangers, it reduces

63
Q

What is anxiety

A

Mental state of arousal including feelings of extreme concern and tension
Physiological changes e.g increased heart rate

64
Q

What is yerks-Dodson law of arousal

A

Ewt accuracy increases as anxiety raises as witness more alert
However when becomes too high, more stress results In lower accuracy

65
Q

Why does high anxiety result in lower accuracy

A

Weapon focus effect- focusing attention on weapon rather than criminals face, distracted. Produces reduced recall

66
Q

Why does high anxiety increase recall

A

State of arousal improves alertness and awareness of situation and surroundings
Strong emotions could improve memory coding

67
Q

Johnson and Scott anxiety EWT study

A

1976
2 groups of pp,s
Group 1) normal convo , man walks out with greasy hands and pen
Group 2- hostile, heated argument, man walks out with knife covered in blood
Asked to identify with 50 pictures
Pen- 49% accuracy
Knife - 33% accuracy
Suggests anxiety caused by knife

68
Q

Yuille and Cutshall , Anxiety

A

1986
Interviewed 13 witnesses to shooting after 4 months
Witnesses resisted misleading info
Those closest to scene higher accuracy EWT
Suggests misleading info may not be significant towards real world ewt

69
Q

Strengths on studies for EWT

A
  1. Real life applications e.g development of cognitive interview reducing influence of schemas on accuracy of recall
70
Q

Weakness of studies for EWT

A
  1. Unethical - researches must conduct in ethical manner, informed consent and protection from harm e.g Johnson and Scott breaking both
  2. Interviewing can cause additional anxiety
    3.means characteristics- saying what researcher ‘wants to hear’
71
Q

Who suggested improvements for standard interview EWT

A

Fisher and Geiselman
1987

72
Q

Standard interview

A
  1. Not able to speak freely
  2. Often interrupted
    3,. Question does not reflect witness mental representation
  3. Questions quick, direct, closed, in short time
73
Q

Cognitive interview

A
  1. Report everything -all details reported even irrelevant
  2. Context reinstatement - mentally returning to scene of environment physical environment and emotional state
  3. Recall In reverse order - changed order, different chronology e.g middle to beginning challenging schemas
  4. Recall from changed perspective- mentally recreate scene of different perspectives of other witnesses, challenges schema and minimises bias .
74
Q

Enhanced cognitive interview

A

Focused on building rapport and making witness feel comfortable
1. Interviewer not distracting witness
2. Controlling flow of info
3. Open ended questions
4. Encouraged not to guess or say idk
5.reduces anxiety , relaxation

75
Q

Strength of using cognitive interview studies

A

Fisher, geiselman and amador
1987
Field study to compare 7detectives trained in CI and 9 in standard
Results : 7 in CI 47% more info in real interviews after training and 63% more info than untrained detectives
Suggests Ci effective in enhancing memory improving info gained in field

76
Q

Why wouldn’t CI be beneficial to use

A

Kohnken
1999
Meta analysis of 2500 interviews of 42 studies
Found significant increase in amount of correct info recalled however also significant increase in incorrect info recalled resulting in similar accuracy rate between SI AND CI.
85% CI. 82% SI
Suggests CI may be of limited practical use due to increased errors

77
Q

Overall AO3 of Cognitive interviews

A
  1. Time consuming, requiring more time than officers have available esp for time sensitive cases. Requiring significant training and investment therefore may not be adopted due to limited resources available to police
  2. Not effective in improving identity parades and photographs therefore limited usefulness in number of police activists involving witness testimony

psychology (11 decks)

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