Agression

Question 1

Neural and hormonal mechanisms

Answer 1

Limbic system- set of neural structures located in centre of brain. Amgydala and hypothalamus key to aggressive behaviour
Serotonin - inhibitory neurotransmitter important In controlling/calming aggressive impulses
Testosterone- male sex hormone found in high levels of males responsible for increased aggression

Question 2

Limbic system (neural and hormonal mechanism)

Answer 2

• collection of structures In centre of brain, one function expressing emotional responses, can trigger agressive behaviour as part of fight or flight
• areas of Limbic system communicate with external layer of brain (orbitofrontal cortex) controls decision making attempting to control aggression produced by Limbic system

Question 3

Limbic system evaluation- strengths

Answer 3

• egger and Flynn- demonstrating electrically stimulating area of hypothalamus in fats causing aggression towards rats, also showers stimulating different parts of amygdala either increases or suppresses aggressive behaviour suggesting hypothalamus has role on producing aggressive behaviour and different areas of amygdala have separation roles in regulating aggression. However conducted on cats, may not be generalisable
• Sumer (2007) conducted case study on 14 year old showing extreme aggressive behaviour as well has epileptic fits, MRI scans show tumour pressing on amygdala, after removal of tumour aggression levels normal suggesting tumour was stimulating amygdala causing aggressive behaviour supporting amygdala linked to aggression . However, one individual cannot he generalised as other factors may influence aggression, not generalisable

Question 4

Serotonin (neural and hormonal mechanisms )

Answer 4

-neurotransmitter linked to aggressive behaviour
- has inhibitory function in brain meaning reduced neural activity
- OFC (orbitofrontal cortex) associated with higher cognitive decision making
- serotonin controls aggressive impulses coming from areas Limbic system, e,g amygdala maintaining stable mood
- serotonin deficiency hypothesis- suggests lower levels of serotonin in orbitofrontal cortex results in less control over Limbic systems aggressive impulses
- shown by lower levels of 5-HIAA in spinal fluid of more aggressive people suggesting low levels of serotonin in brain
- however role of serotonin is complex, individuals with short variant MAOA gene struggle breaking down so higher levels of aggression

Question 5

Support for serotonin

Answer 5

• passamonti 2012- tryptophan In food needed for body to produce serotonin, study uses technique ‘acute tryptophan depletion (avoids food with tryptophan) to reduce serotonin of brain in experimental group
  -researcher measured brain responses to seeing angry faces using FMRI, results showed reduced communication between amygdala and frontal cortex when deprived of serotonin
• pp’s scored highly on aggression questionnaire suggesting lack of serotonin reduces frontal cortex ability to control aggressive impulses in amygdala
• study used randomised, double blind placebo controlled method
• data analysed using FMRI- increased validity
• however use of questionnaire to measure aggression not truly measuring aggressive levels

Question 6

Testosterone (neural and hormonal mechanisms in aggression )

Answer 6

• male sex hormone controlling development of male sex characteristics, levels 8x higher than females
• high levels In testosterone thought to be reason for observed sex differences in aggression as male have high levels
• high levels of testosterone in OFC reduces activity means orbito frontal cortex less able to regulate agressive impulses from Limbic system resulting in less self control to stimuli
  -high levels of testosterone increases activity of amygdala resulting in more aggressive impulses
• high levels of testosterone reduced activity of serotonin limiting ability to calm aggressive impulses

Question 7

Testosterone evaluation strength

Answer 7

• Wagner 1980
  -measured aggression in mice by how often not target
• found males bit more frequently than females however sex difference disappeared after castration
• sex difference in biting frequency restored when male mice injected with testosterone, also increased female mice bite frequency
• suggests level of testosterone hormone in body of mice directly connected to expressive aggressive behaviour

Question 8

Evaluation of neural and hormonal explanations in aggression

Answer 8

X- socially sensitive implication for those it researches e.g if aggressive criminality linked to Limbic abnormalities and predictive of vulnerability to committing violent crime, could lead to suspicion and discrimination against those abnormality before even committing crime
- use of highly controlled studies using objective biological measurements in studies on neural and hormonal mechanisms in aggression reduces potential for bias which is often presented in self reporting techniques suggesting research into aggression has high internal validity

Question 9

Genetic factors

Answer 9

• agressive behaviours is inherited
• family studies used to show closer biological relationship higher concordance rate of aggression however difficult to control for nurture differences as genetically closer family members more likely to share environments
• testosterone produced in testes, hormonal gland development affected by genetic make up , could be responsible for high levels
• serotonin production- breakdown and receptors on neurons influence to detect serotonin influence by genes and can alter serotonin influences on brain

Question 10

MAOA-L (genetic factors)
Genetic explanation

Answer 10

-( monoamine oxidise A) enzyme breaking down neurotransmitter serotonin, low activity variant (MAOA-L) associated with agressiom resulting in low production of MAOA enzyme leading to higher levels of serotonin in brain
-found in 1/3 western men and 60% of some communities however not all men prone to agression, aggression could occur due to history of child abuse diathesis stress model

Question 11

Strength evaluation of genetic factors in agression

Answer 11

• Brunner 1993- conducted case study on extended family in Netherlands, males had Lomb history of attempted rape and impulsive agression, males had low activity MAOA genes suggesting extreme levels of agression can have genetic origin leading to neurological abnormality
• Stuart et al 2014- researched 97 men who committed intimate partner violence genetic analysis revealed defective MAOA gene present in most physically and psychologically aggressive offenders, suggests MAOA-L has role to play in expression of aggressive behaviour
• research on genetic origins of agression can lead to treatment programs, Stuart suggests IPV (intimate partner violence can be improved by genetic screening, careful targeting of medication and suitable behavioural interventions

Question 12

Weakness of explanations of genetic factors

Answer 12

• 1/3 of western men have MAOA-L and twin and adoption studies do not account for all variance in aggression, genetic factors not fill explanation of aggressive behaviour

Question 13

Theology explanation agressiom

Answer 13

• ethology- study of animal aggressive behaviour to understand aspects of human aggression
• animal behaviour provides evolutionary advantages, protect from threat and attract mates
• animal aggression highly ritualistic (members of same species will respond to same behaviours to threat) to look threatening
• innate releasing mechanism triggered by stimulus in environment , animal performs predictable aggressive behaviour called fixed action pattern (FAP)
• FAP- innate behaviour as all members of species perform same behaviour without learning from other members

Question 14

Ethnological explanations supports

Answer 14

• Tinbergen (1947)- male sticklebacks show highly ritualised attack patterns to male of sake species. Male sticklebacks presented with realistic models of male sticklebacks missing distinctive red bellied and presented with unrealistic wooden models with red underside. Found males only attacked wooden models with red underside suggesting male sticklebacks do have innate releasing mechanism for aggression triggered by red bellies of other male sticklebacks resulting in FAP of aggressive behaviour
• slackett- 1966 isolated infant monkeys from mothers to avoid learning behaviour, showed isolated monkeys photographs of monkeys displaying threatening or non threatening poses, found monkeys displayed defensive poses only to threatening photographs suggesting monkeys have innate set of behaviours (FAP) triggered when shown aggression

Question 15

Ethological explanation of aggression , weakness

Answer 15

• animal studies able to separate biological and socio cultural processes when studying aggressive behaviour, giving insight on biological origin of aggression however cannot generalise to humans as human agression is not instinctual but premeditated

Question 16

evolution theory

Answer 16

• evolutionary theory- suggests if genes give survival advantage them individual is more likely to reproduce passing genes down generations
• human aggressive behaviour would have been beneficial to reproductive success of ancestors as helps survive predators, compete for resources. Aggressive Mate provide protection of them and offspring
• human aggressive behaviours e.g male sexual jealousy can be explained by evolutionary theory e,g male sexual jealousy can be explained by evolutionary theory. Males cannot be sure of paternity but mother can be sure of maternity. High levels of male violence could be attempt to ensure faithfulness and certainty

Question 17

Evolutionary explanations support

Answer 17

• daly and Wilson 1990- compared range of murder rates in families for blood/non blood relatives found across wide range of cultures family members far more likely to kill family members they are not genetically related . One data showed infants are 100x more likely to be killed if living with one or more step parent , evolutionary theory suggests because step parents are resistant to spending recourses on children not their own

Question 18

Weakness of evolution theory

Answer 18

• sadallah 1987- female pp’s rated descriptions of high vs low dominant, aggressive or domineering men .Rated highly dominant man more sexually attractive. High agressive and domineering not rated as attractive , rated as unlikable, stable and more promiscuous, suggests aggression in men does not improve reproductive success, dominance achieved without use of aggression results in highest level of attraction possible due to dangers of abusive partner
• theory has typical implications as suggests male aggression is innate possible justification of male abusers to women, may claim they unable to control aggressive impulses

Question 19

Social psychological explanations of human agression
Frustration aggression

Answer 19

• dollard and miller 1939- suggested aggression caused by frustration, frustration happens whenever our goal directed behaviour is blocked
• frustration (unpleasant emotion) builds up and causes mental tension, aggressive acts relieve frustration through psychodynamic process of catharsis (pleasant feeling after releasing strong emotion
• aggression can be displaced (psychodynamic concept) if cannot release aggression at the cause of frustration (either due to not available to us or punishment) aggressive to weaker target e,g family members
• more likely to be aggressive if helps achieve goals (rewarded) or doesn’t have negative responses (punishments)

Question 20

Social psychological explanations, frustration aggression
Evaluation

Answer 20

• Harris 1974- investigated proximity to goal aspect of FA, getting confederates to either push In near front of real cue or near back. Aggressive response of person behind was coded. Found subjects at front of lime showed significantly more aggression that those at back of line, suggests frustration leads to aggression and more intense when In closer proximity to goal. Has higher validity as pps unaware
  X- FA hypothesis does not explain why some people are more resistant to becoming aggressive when frustrated or aggressive when they have not be frustrated e,g cold blooded killers. Aggressive people often repeat aggression regularly suggesting it is not cathartic.

Question 21

Social psychology explanations. Social learning

Answer 21

• we learn from experience, learning is not limited to just direct reinforcement and punishment (as behaviourists suggests). Behavioural responses through observation learning and imitation of role models
• more likely to be repeated if role model rewarded (vicarious reinforcement) less likely if punished (vicarious punishment)
  -identification- observer more likely to imitate if aggressive model high status, attractive or similar age and gender.
• 4 cognitive mediating factors needed for imitation (attention, retention, reproduction and motivation)
• according to SLT, aggressive behaviours is an internal process, observer can internalise observed behaviour without imitating aggression immediately

Question 22

Social psychology explanation- SLT strengths

Answer 22

• bandura 1961- bobo doll study demonstrated when child is shown adult models hitting/kicking inflatable toy, will imitate observed aggression directly copying aggressive acts of adults . Children who observed non aggressive adults not agressive. Results strongest when children observed adults of same gender (identification) suggests children do learn aggressive behaviour through social learning principles and more likely same gender supporting identification
• Williams 1986- (impact of television) observed children for playground aggression before and after television was introduced to rural Canadian town. Found increases in both verbal and physical aggression suggesting viewing aggressive symbolic models on television led to children imitating observed aggressive behaviour

Question 23

Social psychological explanations

Answer 23

• deindivuation
  -social learning theory
  -frustration aggression hypothesis

Question 24

Social psychological explanations of human aggression
Deindivuation

Answer 24

• how being In crowd leads to reduction in self awareness of people In the crowd
• inidividuals in large crowd less easily identified, feel anonymous reducing responsibility
• lowers inhibitions and feelings of guilt around committing aggressive acts
• anonymity increased by masks, uniforms, darkness etc
• sense of personal responsibility in deindividuated state reduced because less worried about what others think as reduction in public self awareness
• because focusing outwards, less able to reflect on own values and personal thoughts on behaviour (lowering of private self awareness ) making us less able to stop own aggressive acts

Question 25

Social psychological explanations
Deindividuation strengths

Answer 25

• Zimbardo 1966- female pp’s In groups of 4 asked to shock learner (confederate). 1 condition group was completed deindivduated (not introduced to other pp and did not speak. Given large lab coats and hoods) to be unidentifiable. Group 2 greeted by name and given large name tags. Deindividuated pp’s shocked 2x as long 90 seconds compared to group 2 48 seconds, suggests anonymity increases aggression
• gergen et al 1973, placed groups of 8 pp into lot or darkened small room , pp’s were taken into and out of room Individually and told they would not be introduced to each other, no rules on what they could. Found no aggression in any of pp’s however found darkened room pp’s significantly affectionate, 90% intentionally touched another person, 50% hugging (infra red camera revealed). None of pp’s in lit room intentionally touched another person. Suggests anonymity does result in low inhibitions however deindividuation does not automatically result in aggressive behaviour
• idea that deindividuation leads to higher levels of aggression has face validity, normal people with no previous convictions get caught up in violent riots, aspects of warfare leads to deindividuation.

Question 26

Evaluation of research into psychological explanations of human aggression

Answer 26

• practical applications e.g understanding of deindividuation city planners can make sure streets are well lit, use of CCTV to make people feel identified. SLT can be used to perform interventions on children who may be at risk of aggressive role models. Frustration aggression can be used to reduce frustration or provide opportunities for catharsis that minimises harm
• x- social psychological theories suggest aggression is due to primary to nurture, complex aggressive behaviours come from interaction with environment, experience and learning however evidence for biological explanations therefore SLT not full explanation
  X- counfounding factors causing agression e,g children who are more exposed to more aggressive modls may be more educationally, financially and nutritionally deprived

Question 27

Instructional aggression

Answer 27

• why prisoners are more violent
• dispositional factors suggests high level of aggression due to personal characteristics or individual, not environmental
• situational- suggests high level of aggression due to environment, not personal characteristics

Question 28

Dispositional factors - institutional aggression

Answer 28

• aggressive behaviour is internal to prisoners
• individual internal characteristics of aggressive prisoners are high levels of anger, impulsivity, experience of using v
• importation model - aggression is imports into prison environment from outside world as result of prisoners personality. Prison gather people convicted of violent crimes and continue to perform inside
• gang membership- common, prisoners bring prior gang alliances, feuds, and street culture with them into prison environment, can result in instrumental violence, premeditated aggression used as tool either to settle scores with other gangs or increase status
• other personal factors ; drug withdrawal, drug addiction, level of education
• biological factors high levels of testosterone

Question 29

Situational aggression institutional aggression

Answer 29

• suggests reason for prisoners being aggressive is emyeraml to prisoners
• prisoners highly stressful and unpleasant
  -prisoner is criminogenic (cause of prisoners aggression)
• physical factors of prison design e,g poor layout, excessive noise, access to improvised weapons and CCTV blind spots
• lack of poor facilities e,g gyms, workshops cause boredom, frustration
• deprivation model- suggests depriving prisojers of freedom, sense of safety, heterosexual relationships and autonomy leads to stress
• deprivation and physical situation creates frustration and fear leads to expressive violence, aggression as unplanned reactionary response to conditions

Question 30

Support for situational factors of aggression

Answer 30

• Bierie (2011) stratified random sample of prison staff from all 117 US federal bureau of prisons responses to questionnaire on conditions at prison, matched to prison records of violence, results suggests extreme inmate violence was significantly higher in prisons with poor conditions such as noise levels, poor hygiene and lack of privacy for inmates, also more white male and less female staff. Supports situational argument that factors in control of prison management can influence violence in prison
• zimbardos prison study supports institutional aggression being result on situational factors, pps psychologically screened before ensuring no criminal records and were healthy therefore unlikely to be apart of dispositional factors, experiment quickly escalated into aggression from both prisoners and guards suggesting due to situational power of stimulated prison environment

Question 31

Support for dispositional factors

Answer 31

• DeLisi 2011
• reviewed early personal background and criminal history of over 2500 young male offenders to see if it was predictive of violent institutional misconduct, found that living in care, poverty , history of violence towards family members associated with violent assault of staff or other inmates while in prison suggesting early home experiences before prison results in dispositional factors causing aggression, not prison itself. DeLisi explains this as life course importation model, negative early life correlate with anti social behaviour both outside and inside prison leading to more violence

Question 32

Institutional aggression evaluation of research

Answer 32

• research into institutional aggression due to situational factors of prisoners being in poor conditions could lead to increased funding for prison facilities
• interactionist approach may be more valid explanation p, suggests prisoners who are due to dispositional characteristics are more prone to aggression however prisoners are more likely to be aggressive if placed into situations they feel need to be aggressive in e.g if they feel threatened, lack resources etc

Question 33

Media influences on aggression

Answer 33

• frequently seeing aggression in media increases aggression e.g newspapers
• social learning suggests identification with attractive but violent hero increases likelihood of imitating , observer may learn via vicarious learning aggression solves problems and gets rewarded
• viewers moral decision making process could be socialised by media as aggression hero’s violence shown to be justified, can cause viewer anger to think aggressive response correct when they feel they have been wronged

Question 34

Media influences- compute games

Answer 34

• aspects of computer games provide may provide more extreme influence on aggression as computer games players actively control avatars in which aggression is only way to progress im game
• effective use of aggression positively reinforced by receiving games, rewards (operant conditioning’)
• playing violent games may reduce likelihood of real aggression by providing catharsis (feeling of relief from releasing negative emotions like anger or stress)

Question 35

Media influences - desensitisation

Answer 35

• when people see results of extreme aggression usually experience disgust, discomfort, and high levels of anxiety. People usually avoid aggression to avoid unpleasant feelings however repeated exposure to extreme aggression desensitises, reduces strong reaction , making it easier for people to be extremely aggressive

Question 36

Media influences - disinhibition

Answer 36

• aggressive impulses are inhibited, inhibition comes from socialisation, taught from young age aggression is not acceptable/rewarding. However respected exposure to justified aggression the media and from committing aggressive acts in computer games thought to disinhibited avoidance of aggression in real life

Question 37

Media influences- Cognitive priming

Answer 37

• we have schemas for how to respond in certain situations, can learn schemas from tv and computer games , may often see hero acting aggressively when threatened with gun or knife, these becomes cues or priming stimuli
• them cognitively primed, when we are exposed to cues in real world in similar context then we act aggressively

Question 38

Strengths research for media influencing aggression

Answer 38

• Murray 2006 scanned brains of 8 children with FMRI while watched violent, non violent video sequences, found wide range of areas activated while playing violent games . Murray suggests viewers see violence as real due to amygdala activation and are cognitively rikedn, as aggressive scripts stored in posterior cingulate (area associated with LTM usag) cognitive priming
• carnagey and Anderson 2007- asked pp’s to either play violent/non violent video game for 20 minute before watching 10 minutes video on real world violence, results showed lower galvanic skin response and heart rate in pp’s playing aggressive games, suggests exposure to violence has physiologically desensitised played to violent imagery - desensitation
• Berkowitz and Powers 1979- males watched aggressive scene from TV show and given written summaries of show, which suggested violence was justified lost aggressive to confederates in follow up task. Researchers suggest viewing aggression along with justification created disinhibited aggressive response in viewers

Question 39

Evaluation of research into media influencing aggression

Answer 39

• has face validity. real world examples; sandy hook elementary school shooting , Adam Lanza , December 14th 2012. 20 year old gunman killed 20 children and 6 adult staff before taking his own life. Lanza had gaming habits and interest in violent video games. May have influenced by violent video shooting games however no inconclusive evidence as may be due to mental health issues
• psychological research into possible links between aggression and media use can be used to inform policy around regulations to do with age rating of games and if certain games should be banned
  -X- number of studies used to argue violent video game and media use in childhood leads to aggression in adolescence is correlational, may be people who are more aggressive chose to watch more violent content