Unit 4 - Global governance Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the definition of ‘globalisation’?

A

The increasing interaction between people and places at a global scale due to advances in transport and communications.

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2
Q

What is a ‘trading bloc’?

A

A group of countries within a geographical region that trade together and protect themselves from imports from other countries, for example with the use of import tariffs.

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3
Q

What is the definition of ‘glocalisation’?

A

Where products and services are distributed globally but have been adapted to meet local needs, for example McDonalds introduced the ‘Chicken Maharaja Mac’ to meet local tastes in India.

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4
Q

What are the 4 types of globalisation?

A
  • economic
  • social
  • political
  • cultural
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5
Q

Give examples of economic globalisation.

A

The growth of MNCs and the movements of materials, goods and investments around the globe.
The development of ICT, allowing easy global communication and data transfer.

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6
Q

Give examples of social globalisation.

A

International migration and multi-ethnic cities.
Increasing social interconnectivity due to technology.

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7
Q

Give examples of political globalisation.

A

Growth of trading blocks (eg the EU), global organisations (eg the World Bank) and global governance issues (eg use of the oceans) and free trade.

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8
Q

Give examples of cultural globalisation.

A

Spread of ‘western’ and increasingly non-western culture, such as food and fashion.
Growth of glocalisation and hybridisation of cultures.
Increase in social media, allowing the spread of ideas.

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9
Q

What does globalisation result in?

A

The 4 types of globalisation are interconnected, creating global systems in which many people and goods can travel quickly over long distances.
Globalisation results in people and places being connected to form a network.

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10
Q

What are the 4 types of global flow?

A
  • Goods
  • Money
  • People
  • Technology and ideas
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11
Q

What is meant by ‘goods’ being a type of global flow?

A

The global demand for raw materials, food and manufactured goods has increased, especially with the growth of emerging economies like India and China.

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12
Q

What is meant by ‘money’ being a type of global flow?

A

Large amounts are transacted via stock exchanges around the world.
MNCs based in one country invest in areas in other parts of the world.

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13
Q

What is meant by ‘people’ being a type of global flow?

A

International migration has increased so that 3.5% of the worlds population are international migrants.
International tourism has increased; this has been helped by tourists from emerging economies - China was the biggest spender on tourism in 2017 ($258 billion)

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14
Q

What is meant by ‘technology and ideas’ as being a type of global flow?

A

Fast internet speeds, social media and mobile phones allow data and points of view to transfer and spread rapidly.

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15
Q

What are the 2 classes of migrants?

A

Internal migrants
International migrants

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16
Q

What is an internal migrant?

A

Someone who moves to a new place within the same country: this may be voluntary or forced, ie internally displaced people.

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17
Q

What is an international migrant, and what are the 2 types?

A

International migrant - someone who moves from one country to another, these can be classified as:
Economic migrants - Those who move voluntarily in search of work and a better quality of life.
Refugees - Those forced to move due to fear of persecution, or death from conflict of natural hazards.

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18
Q

What continents are the origin of most international migrants?

A

Asia and Europe (62%)

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19
Q

Which country has the largest born population living elsewhere?

A

India

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20
Q

What 3 factors create a shrinking world for migrants?

A

Transport
Communication
Media

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21
Q

How does transport create a shrinking world for migrants?

A

The travel time between places has decreased, which means distance has decreased in significance and is less of an obstacle to migration.
For example, the developement of high-speed railways encourages internal and international migration.
The growth of cheap air travel allows more people to move.

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22
Q

How does communication help create a shrinking world for migrants?

A

The growth in mobile phone ownership an internet access allows more people to find out about opportunities in other places, encouraging migration.
It is easier for migrants to stay in contact with family and friends in the country of origin, so there is less fear of isolation for a potential migrant.

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23
Q

How does the media create a shrinking world for migrants?

A

Increasing access to media can show potential migrants the attractions of moving to a different country.
Social media can establish groups that encourage and help migrants, for example migrants in the Netherlands are linked to facebook groups that help with language and integration.
Social media allows communication with home.

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24
Q

What is the definition of ‘extreme’ poverty?

A

Extreme poverty is described by the World Bank as living on an income of less that US$1.90 a day.

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25
Q

What is a primary commodity?

A

An unprocessed material that is extracted or harvested. Examples include food, minerals and energy resources.

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26
Q

What are the 3 main factors driving international out-migration?

A

Poverty
Primary commodity prices
Poor access to markets within global systems

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27
Q

How is poverty a factor driving international out-migration?

A
  • People living in extreme poverty and unable to afford basic needs migrate in search for a better quality of life
  • Relative poverty - while people in some countries can have an acceptable income compared with those in extreme poverty, they migrate to countries where incomes are higher, for example over 1 million Poles have migrated to the UK.
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28
Q

How are primary commodity prices driving international out migration?

A
  • Many developing countries depend on a few primary commodities for export revenues
  • Prices can vary up to 50% in a single year due to factors such as yield and demand
  • Low prices result in a lack of investment in services such as schools and healthcare
  • Producers may not make enough to be able to afford basic needs
  • Vulnerability to fluctuating prices and the lack of investments in services can encourage people to migrate
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29
Q

Why might primary commodity prices be low?

A

Overproduction - if too much is grown and the yield is high, the excess supply pushes the prices down
Poor governance -can result in failure to get fair trading deals as MNCs take advantage or force down prices

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30
Q

How can poor access to markets within global systems drive international out-migration?

A

Trade blocs, such as the EU, protect their own producers by putting import tariffs on goods imported from outside the bloc. This makes it harder for countries outside the bloc to sell their produce unless the price is reduced.
High-income counties can support their own producers with subsidies, which means that other producers have to sell at lower prices to compete.
The lack of income from being unable to sell or having to sell at lower prices can encourage migration.

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31
Q

What is a diaspora community?

A

A large group of people with a similar heritage or homeland who have migrated to different parts of the world.
A diaspora includes both migrants and their descendants.

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32
Q

What are the 3 main recent drivers of migration?

A

The development of diaspora communities
Colonial and Commonwealth links
Legislation permitting freedom and movement

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33
Q

How is the development of diaspora communities a driver of migration?

A

Migrants can be attracted to areas where people from the same country of origin already live. This can be advantageous because -
- help is given to support new arrivals
- there is the possibility of employment within the community
- there is access to service for the cultural needs of the community, for example religious buildings or shops
India has the largest diaspora population with almost 20 million living abroad.

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34
Q

How are colonial and commonwealth links a driver of migration?

A

Migrants from former colonies are attracted to the former ruling country because -
- a large diaspora community may already exist
- familiarity with the culture and language make it easier to integrate
- they are encouraged by the former ruling nation to fill gaps in the labour force, for example the ‘windrush generation’, who were encouraged after WW2 to move from the Caribbean to live and work in the UK

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35
Q

How is legislation permitting freedom of movement a driver of migration?

A

Parts of the world allow free movement of migrants between countries
The EU allows free movement of labour. Large numbers have migrated from Eastern Europe to the UK, France and Germany
The Mercosur Residence Agreement allows nationals of nine South American countries to live and work in other member countries

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36
Q

What is a ‘superpower’?

A

A country that can exert influence and power (consisting of economic and military ‘hard power’) at a global scale
A country than can exert such an influence over its neighbours but not globally is a regional superpower.

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37
Q

Why are superpowers seen as an attractive destination for migrants?

A
  • the involvement in world affairs (eg USA with international aid, military power, economic influence, spread of culture and media)
  • many european countries have had colonies in different continents, familiarity results in migrants from former colonies moving to the former governing country
  • china is now the worlds largest economy, with its FDI having an increasing global impact
    The perceived opportunities of a better quality of life, familiarity with the language and culture, as well as an existing migrant community makes many superpowers an attractive destination for migrants.
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38
Q

What is G7 and what countries are in it?

A

G7 is a group consisting of seven of the most powerful countries in the world.
Usa
Germany
UK
Canada
France
Italy
Japan

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39
Q

What are the advantages of international migration for superpowers?

A
  • migrants fill labour shortages
  • more skilled workers, for example Indian doctors working in the NHS
  • many migrants are willing to work in unskilled and/or low paid jobs such as cleaning or restaurant work
  • MNCs are often keen to invest in areas with a diverse population and may employ highly skilled migrants, for example the London based Deutsche banks former CEO was born and raised in India
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40
Q

What is a global hub?

A

A city or region that provides a focal point for activities at a global scale.

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41
Q

How have cities developed as global hubs?

A
  • cities may considered as global hubs due to the presence of MNC headquarters, globally reowned universities or global financial or political institutions
  • many global hubs have benefitted from some form of ‘top-down’ support from the government
  • China has created planned industrial hubs, for example Shenzhen was made a special economic zone, attracting the headquaters of many Chinese high-tech companies, MNCs and financial institutions
  • Silicon valley in California has US government support, such as defence contracts for research and development and work for government departments
    -other strategies include grants and tax breaks, public private partnerships and building infrastructure to attract investment in the city.
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42
Q

What are remittances?

A

Funds transferred by foreign workers to their family and friends in their home country

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43
Q

What are the advantages to remittances?

A

Remmitances can help reduce poverty and increasing spending in migrants country of origin, creating a positive multiplier effect and possibly reducing inequalities
- India received the most in remittances in 2017, with a value of $69 billion
- Remittances are worth between 2 and 3 times the amount in global aid budget
- in 9 developing countries, remittances contribute over 20% of GDP

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44
Q

What are the disadvantages to remittances/migration?

A
  • skilled migrant workers can create brain drain in the source nation as they leave to work abroad, for example Indian professionals working for high tech companies in the US
  • flows of money, ideas and technology linked with economic migration can promote growth and stability, but also exacerbate inequality, causing conflict
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45
Q

What are the consequences of economic migration on the host nation? (Leading to promotion of growth and stability)

A
  • Labour skill shortages can be filled, which may increase productivity
  • Labour force willing to accept lower-paid jobs that locals do not want
  • Many migrants have entrepreneurial skills and establish successful new businesses, providing employment opportunties, for example a seventh of UK companies with a turnover of over $1 million a year were funded by migrants
  • Positive multiplier effect of migrant spending can help boost the economy
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46
Q

What are the consequences of economic migration on the source nation? (leading to promotion of growth and stability)

A
  • spending remittances in the source nation boosts the economy, for example the money sent back to the phillipines after the global financial crisis of 2008 prevented the country going into recession
  • migrants and descendants may return home and establish businesses using skills learned in the host nation
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47
Q

What are the consequences of economic migration on the host nation? (leading to the exacerbation of inequalities)

A
  • skilled migrants can bring new ideas and skills to companies in the host nation which can increase inequalities with source nations
  • the influx of migrants can increase pressure on services such as schools, creating a financial burden for areas where they settle, this may create conflicts with locals unwilling to contribute to the costs
    -people in the host nation may have the impression that migrants are taking jobs from locals, which may create conflict
  • migrants may fail to integrate into the host country, creating social conflicts
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48
Q

What are the consequences of economic migration on the source nation (leading to exacerbation of inequalities)?

A
  • the loss of a large number of the young, economically active population results in lack of investment in economic activities
  • the lack of spending by workers slows economic growth, increasing inequalities with host nations
  • economic losses result from the costs of educating and training workers who then go abroad
  • political changes may see migrants forced to leave host nations and return home, creating conflicts between countries
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49
Q

What is the definition of ‘interdependency’?

A

When 2 or more countries are mutually reliant on one another.

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50
Q

Give an example of economic interdependency.

A

The growth of global trade and methods of production where components are manufactured and assembled in different countries has led to the growth of economic interdependency, for example a Land Rover Discovery made in the UK uses parts from the UK as well as from Germany, France, HUngary, Ireland, Czech Republic and Poland.

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51
Q

Give an example of social interdependency.

A

A family relying on a member finding work abroad and sending back remittances, so that the family can improve its quality of life, demonstrates an example of social interdependency.

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52
Q

Give an example of political interdependency.

A

Countries joining together in intergovernmental organisations such as the World Bank, United Nations (UN) and the EU allows member states to assist each other in matters such as financial issues, trade and conflict resolutions, illustrating political interdependency.

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53
Q

Give an example of environmental interdependency.

A

Environmental concerns have resulted in countries working together to find solutions, such as the 1997 Kyoto Protocol to control greenhouse emissions.

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54
Q

What are the benefits of interdependency?

A
  • Decrease in conflict - countries relying on each other may be less likely to go to war with each other
  • countries joined in intergovernmental organisations can work together to solve problems, for example the World Bank gave US$1.6 billion to countries hardest hit by the spread of Ebola in 2015
  • in organisations such as the EU, migrant labour allows economic output to be maximised and the greater revenues are shared between all members
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55
Q

What are the risks of interdependency?

A
  • an economic recession can result in cancellation of construction projects, which may result in unemployment for migrants labour and fewer remittances being sent home
  • events in the source nation can result in migrant workers returning home, creating labour shortages in the host nation, for example australians returning home for the olympics in 2000 created difficulties in finding temporary teachers to fill vacancies in parts of the UK
  • the process of backwash results in migrants moving from peripheral regions to hubs, which leaves labour shortages in some areas
  • increased resentment against migrants as people feel the migrants are taking are taking the available jobs
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56
Q

What are the 6 different migration policies countries can adopt?

A
  • maintain the current level of migration
  • reduce the level of migration
  • increase the level of migration
  • no official policy
  • increase the proportion of highly skilled workers
  • encourage the return of their citizens
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57
Q

What is the 5 tier migration policy for non-eu nationals in the UK?

A

Tier 1 - entrepreneurs, investors and exceptional talent
Tier 2 - skilled workers and expected high earners
Tier 3 - unskilled workers
Tier 4 -students coming over to study, must be able to speak and write English
Tier 5 - short term and temporary workers, such as entertainers, athletes and charity workers

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58
Q

Who are refugees?

A

People who have been forced to leave their home country (internally displaces persons have been forced to leave their homes but remain within their own country)

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59
Q

What are the 3 main causes of reefugee movement and internal displacement?

A

Geopolitical causes - war
Economic causes - landgrabbing
Natural distasters and climate change - drought

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60
Q

How can geopolitics be a cause of refugee movement?

A
  • as a result of a colonial past, many countries in Africa and the middle East have borders that have little relation to current ethnic groups, leading to conflicts over power
  • powerful countries each have their own agenda, supporting different sides and prolonging the conflict
  • people flee from war, like in Syria in 2011, which has caused 5.6 million refugees
  • people flee from persecution, which often occurs during, and as a result of, war
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61
Q

How can economic injustices be a cause of refugee movement? (landgrabbing)

A
  • landgrabbing occurs when individuals lose access to the land they previously used, threatening their livelihood
  • large areas of land in low income countries are acquired by MNCs, foreign governments and individuals
  • companies acquire land to make money from cash crops for export, such as palm oil, soy and biofuels
  • around 60% of Cambodias arable land has been handed to private companies, displacing many people
  • africa is a prime target for land grabs - 70% of land acquired by foreign investors in just 11 countries, 7 of which are in africa (eg ethiopa)
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62
Q

How can natural disasters and climate change be a cause of refugee movement?

A
  • natural hazards leading to disasters can cause people to flee to safety
  • over 20 million people in somalia, south sudan, nigeria and yemen are facing extreme drought and are moving to avoid starvation
  • in the future, climate change could result in 13 million people coastal dwellers being displaced as a result of rising sea levels
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63
Q

How does refugee movement impact the lives of the refugees?

A
  • refugees flee homes, leaving possessions, jobs, social networks and sometimes family members, often risking their lives to reach the destination
  • a lack of money, citizenship and the possibility of speaking the language can make integration ‘in the host region difficult
  • many refugees are held in refugee camps where conditions are overcrowded and basic
  • refugees are unavailable to work and rely on aid organisations for many basic needs, children may receive no eduction
  • in the UK a refugee given permission to stay has 28 days to find accommodation and apply for benefits before they are evicted from asylum accommodation, many then become homeless
64
Q

What impact does refugee movement have on neighbouring states?

A
  • most refugees travel the shortest distance necessary until they feel safe
  • this can result in countries surrounding an area where people are fleeing receiving large numbers of refugees, for example countries surrounding Syria have recieved far more refugees than EU countries further away
  • large numbers can put pressure on surrounding areas to provide refugee camps, humanitarian aid and support for refugees
  • refugees may never return home, integrating into the host country
65
Q

What are the disadvantages to refugee movement on developed countries?

A
  • the cost of supporting a refugee can be high - over £15000 per refugee in the first year of relocation
  • refugees tend to assimilate slowly into the host countries, often because they have been traumatised and forced to leave. They are often less well-matched to a host country than migrants who chose to travel there
  • refugees are often mistaken for illegal immigrants or economic migrants. In some european countries it is thought by some people that the number is too high and this has influenced political views
66
Q

What are the benefits of refugee movement on economically developed countries?

A
  • refugees can fill labour shortages or create jobs
  • former ugandan asian refugees have created an estimated 30,000 in leicester since their arrival in 1972
  • refugees may have skills that can be used, saving the costs of training new workers. For example, 1200 medically qualified refugees work in the UK.
67
Q

What have various national governments done to tackle the refugee crisis?

A
  • the policy on refugees adopted by national governments varies greatly, resulting in a large variation in the number of refugee applications for asylum seekers being accepted
    -in 2016, the EU accepted 45% of all asylum applications, the figures ranged from 94% in bulgaria to 9% in hungary. The UK accepted 39%
  • of the 25,750 asylum applications accepted by australia in 2016, 12000 were from syria and iran
  • military vessels patrol australian waters and tow asylum seekers back to Indonesia
  • refugees reaching australia are held in an offshore processing centre on the pacific island of Nauru
68
Q

What is the UNHCR and what services do they provide?

A

The office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) is an intergovernmental institution supported by many countries, whose role is to provide international protection and seek permanent solutions to the problems of refugees, services include;
- emergency assistance, such as clean water, sanitation, healthcare, shelter, blankets and households goods
- transport and assistance for refugees returning home
- training and income (generating projects for refugees who settle)
- cashbased interventions - cash and vouchers are given to refugees so that they can buy food and access to services

69
Q

What do NGO’s do to help support the movement of refugees?

A

NGO’s aim to ease refugees crises in a variety of ways, such as providing aid and support to refugees as well as advice to help governments. Many charities devote some of their work to helping refugees, examples include:
- Refugee Action (provides support and advice for refugees settling into the UK)
- Refugees International (a global, independent organisation that challenges governments and policy makers to improve the lives of refugees, it carries out field research and reports back to policy makers)

70
Q

How are some states powerless in relation to cross-border flows of people? Give an example.

A

Some states are relatively powerless to prevent the movement of people or resources across their borders
- a country may not have the resources to able to protect and control its borders
- the borders may be long and pass through relatively remote areas that lack infrastructure and government services, making it difficult to identify the actual border
- an example is the Democratic Republic of Congo, DRC, which is bordered by 9 countries. For 15 years up to 2010, militia groups entered the DRC to support ethnic groups, in fear many refugees crossed uncontrolled borders into the central African Republic. The milita groups have aslo decimated DCRs wildlife, illegally trafficking wildlife products out of the country, to south sudan and kenya

71
Q

What is a mega city?

A

A city with a population of 10 million or more.

72
Q

What are the push factors in rural areas?

A
  • poverty in rural areas is the main pushfactor encouraging people to leave in search of a better quality of life
  • farming can involve physical and demanding work, which many may not want to do
  • rural areas can lack basic services and education can be limitted
  • people may be displaced from the land in rural areas as a result of land grabs or fleeing from persecution
73
Q

How can mechanised labour be a push factor in rural areas?

A

Mechanisation reduces the need for labour, for example the introduction of tractors to Burkina Faso eliminated the need for male labourers tilling the land.

74
Q

How are MNCs a push factor in rural areas?

A
  • MNCs are involved in cultivating and exporting cash crops grown in developing countries. These can be large scale operations, for example Karuturi Global Ltd, the largest producer of cut roses in the world, leased 25000 ha of land in Ethiopa in 2018 to grow flowers for export
  • In developing agriculture, MNCs may introduce modern technology to improve productivity, thus reducing job opportunities
  • MNC involvement in agriculture can result in land grabs, which prevent indigenous people from accessing their land
  • Jobs created by MNCs can be low paid and lack security, for example Karuturi Global has previously abandoned a number of large commercial farms, leaving workers unemployed
  • MNCs may develop infrastructure such as roads to help distribute the cash crops. This might make it easier for migrants to travel to urban areas
75
Q

How is land degradation a push factor in rural areas?

A

Over 3.6 billion hectares of arid land are affected by dessertification and 10 million hectares deteriorate each year.
Reduced yields and abandoned land result in increased poverty which encourages mitigation

76
Q

What is a global supply chain?

A

A global supply chain is the world wide network an MNC relies on to produce and distribute its goods and services.

77
Q

What are the 3 main employment pull factors in urban areas?

A

Global supply chains
Exporting processing zones
Other opportunities

78
Q

How are global supply chains pull factor in urban areas?

A
  • MNCs have moved factories and offices abroad to take advantage of lower wage costs. This processing of offshoring creates employment opportunities in countries such as China, India and those in South America and Africa
  • MNCs outsource production, using foreign companies to produce goods or provide services, for example apple outsourcing to China, Nike outsources footwear production to Thailand, South Korea, Vietnam and India
  • The growth in demand for information technology (IT) services has led to growth of outsourcing and offshoring of IT services, especially to India by companies such as HP, IBM and Microsoft. These jobs are more attractive than working in agriculture, especially for young, educated people.
79
Q

What are export processing zones?

A

EPZs are industrial areas especially set up by governments to attract foreign investment and create employment
Companies operating in EPZs may get incentives, such as duty free imports of raw materials, flexibility in labour laws and tax concessions

80
Q

How are EPZs a pull factor in employment in urban areas?

A
  • the development of EPZs has encouraged MNCs to invest in many developing and emerging economies in the world
  • EPZs have increased by over 3000 in the last 20 years, so that there are now over 4000, creating over 70 million jobs
  • manufacturing in many epzs in developing countries provides people with jobs for young, unmarried, poorly educated females whose employment opportunities are often limited in rural areas
81
Q

What are the consequences of rural-urban migration to rural areas?

A
  • young, economically active and ambitious people (especially men) are most likely to migrate
  • elderly people who remain may be the least able to do the physical agricultural work. For example 70% of Indias population aged over 60 are rural dwellers
  • the most educated often leave so rural areas become less likely to be introduced to new, innovative ideas
  • changes in the workforce make rural areas less productive. This could make the areas more vulnerable to land grabs
  • migrants can send more remittances back to family members in rural areas, which supports the population
82
Q

What are possible solutions to the negative impacts in rural areas caused by rural-urban migration?

A
  • countries investing in agriculture to make it a more attractive occupation, for example investment in the production of cocoa in Ghana led to the return of 2 million Ghanaians
  • investing in rural areas so people are less likely to leave
  • improving services such as healthcare and education, for example free healthcare and housing improvements reduced migration in Sri Lanka
    -improving infrastructure, such as water supply and sanitation, as well as transport links to aid the transport of agricultural produce to market or processing factories
83
Q

What are the consequences of rural-urban migration in urban areas?

A
  • rapid growth of mega cities
  • cities increase in size which can add to problems of congestion and air pollution
  • a lack of suitable housing and the inability to meet demand for housing cities lead to growth of squatter settlements on the edges of urban areas and in other parts of the city not suited for housing
  • jobs available in epzs are often poorly paid due to relaxed labour laws
  • the cost of installing infrastructure in settled areas can be nine times higher than installing it before development
  • slum areas can still heavily support governmental economy and generate income
84
Q

How are the issues of rural-urban migration in urban areas resolved?

A
  • managing rapid urban growth in developing mega-cities can involve topdown methods, where authorities plan and provide for the growing population, for example the construction of housing developments and new cities in china
  • bottomup models involve people working together to make their own improvements. The organisation Practical Action supports community-led schemes in squatter settlements around the world to improve water supply, waste disposal and santitation
  • management methods may be a combination of topdpwn and bottomup schemes. For example in Rocinha in Rio deJaneiro the authorities supported bottom up schemes by providing residents with materials for building permanent accommodation. The money saved on labour allowed topdown plans to provide services such as water, electricity, schools and health centre. The area is now home to many businesses.
85
Q

What is a supranational institution?

A

An organisation that shares decision making and has influence over its member states, regardless of national boundaries

86
Q

What are the 7 main supranational insitutions?

A
  • united nations (UN)
  • united nations educational, scientific and cultural organisation (UNESCO)
  • european union (EU)
  • G8/7
  • G20
    -G77
  • north atlantic treaty organization (NATO)
87
Q

What is the role of the United Nations? (UN)

A

Founded in 1945, it now has 193 members. Its role includes:
- maintaining peace and security and upholding international law
- protecting human rights
- providing humanitarian aid
- promoting sustainable development
The fulfilling of some of these roles will involve ocean governance

88
Q

What is the role of UNESCO?

A
  • part of its role is to protect the environment, including oceans
  • its international oceanographic commission (IOC) promotes cooperation and coordinates marine research in effectively managing ocean resources
89
Q

What is the role of the EU?

A

A political and economic union of european states
Its marine strategy framework drirective aims to protect the marine environment in Europe

90
Q

What is the role of G7/8?

A
  • intergovernmental political forum made up of the USA, UK, Germany, France, Italy, Japan, Canada and Russia
  • the exclusion of russia in 2014 created G7
  • members meet at least annually to discuss economic policies
  • in 2017, the g7 made the future of oceans a key priority, aiming to conserve and sustainably use the ocean resources
91
Q

What is the role of G20?

A
  • international forum of 19 countries and the EU, it replaces the G8 as the main economic forum of wealthy nations
  • it has called for global ocean governance to ensure that the use of the oceans is sustainable
  • in 2017 it developed an action plan to reduce plastic waste and waste entering oceans
92
Q

What is the role of G77?

A

Founded in 1964 as a coalition of developing countries to promote economic interests. It now has 134 members
Committed to supporting the UNs goal of conservation and sustainable use of oceans

93
Q

What is the role of NATO?

A
  • an intergovernmental military alliance between 29 North American and European countries
  • plays a role in maritime security not just in the atlantic, for example in tackling piracy in the Indian ocean
94
Q

What are the 3 main laws and regulations regulating the use of the Earths oceans?

A

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
Sustainability agreements
Eu marine directive

95
Q

What is UNLCOS?

A
  • this defined the rights and jurisdiction countries have over different parts of the ocean by establishing territorial sea limits
  • the convention came into force on 16th November 1994 and has been signed by 168 countries
  • some landlocked countries and USA have not signed
  • the creation of EEZs gave coastal countries ownership of resources in the water and ocean floor up to 200 nautical miles (370km) from the shore
  • where 2 countries eez overlapped a decision was made on boundaries
  • this led to disputes, for example norway and russia dispute around the area of Svalbard
  • countries also claimed eezs for overseas territories, the example the UK and Argentina are in dispute over the EEZ around the falkland island
96
Q

What are the 4 UNCLOS ocean management zones?

A

Territorial waters - 0-3 miles, country has complete control over all activities
Contiguous zone - 3-12 miles, country has sovereignty and legal rights, eg customs and rules governing waste disposal, but unimpeded access given to vessels from any country
EEZ/EFZ - 12-200 miles, country has rights to control sea bed and water resources, but sharing allowed in some situations, all countries have rights to sail or fly over this area, european region more complex with issues regarding fishing unresolved
High seas - 200+ miles, outside the sovereignty and legal rights of a single country, certain international agreements apply

97
Q

What are the ocean sustainability agreements?

A

Goal 14 of the UNs sustainable development goals is to conserve and sustainably use the oceans and marine resources. This includes -
- preventing and reducing pollution
- sustainably managing marine ecosystems
- ending overfishing

98
Q

What is the EU Marine Directive?

A

This aims to achieve ‘good environmental status’ for the EU’s marine waters by 2020 and to protect the resource base on which marine economic and social activities depend on.
Each member state is required to develop strategy for its marine waters that is renewed every 6 years

99
Q

What are the strategic values of the oceans to superpowers?

A
  • protecting sea lines of communication and trade, for example by upholding international law
  • ensuring maritime security
  • preventing conflict
  • delivering humanitarian operations and emergency relief
100
Q

What are chokepoints?

A

Narrow channels along widely used global sea routes.
Over 66% of the worlds oil is moved by sea.
Around 53% of oil travels through the seven major chokepoints.

101
Q

What are the 7 major oil chokepoints?

A
  • strait of Hormuz
  • strait of malacca
  • suez canal
  • mandeb strait
  • danish strait
  • turkish strait
  • panama canal
102
Q

What impacts does blocking a chokepoint have?

A
  • increasing oil prices due to the effect on supply rate, and increasing transport costs-
  • leaving tankers vulnerable to terrorist attacks and theft by pirates
  • increasing the risk of shopping accidents and oil spills
    Blocking the Strait of Hormuz for 1 month would reduce the US GDP by about $15 billion per quarter
103
Q

Why is the Suez Canal so important?

A

The suez canal reduces distance and journey times and therefore costs for ships travelling from east to Europe and America
- the canal is operated and maintained by the Egyptian- owned Suez Canal Authority
- in 2017, egypt collected $3.5 billion in revenue for canal tolls
- its importance may diminish however, as melting artic ice may result in ships travelling north along Russias northern coast, which is a shorter and faster route. This could increase Russias strategic importance.

104
Q

How do piracy hotspots affect maritime trade?

A
  • in recent years there has been an increase in piracy, putting all trading ships at risk
  • while attacks are often on small boats, merchant shipping has also been attacked. Pirates may steal cargos or hold hostages or boats to ransom
  • piracy can also increase the risk of environmental disaster, crews of merchant ships are often locked up and the ship is left unmanned risking accidents with oil spills
  • the main piracy hotspots are the Indian ocean, the Strait of Malacca and the coast of Somalia
105
Q

Why has there been a slight reduction in recent piracy?

A

Boats protect themselves with razor wire and armed guards to prevent pirates boarding
NATO, EU and countries such as Russia and India are using warships to patrol the Indian Ocean

106
Q

Explain the UK’s past as a maritime power.

A
  • as an island nation, the UK has always connected with countries around the globe to trade
  • with the growth of the British Empire connections developed and the UK grew into the maritime superpower to protect its colonies
  • many connections continue with countries belonging to the Commonwealth
  • in the past, UK cities with a maritime heritage became culturally diverse due to trade and the arrival of immigrants, for example London, Liverpool, Bristol and Cardiff
107
Q

What are the trends in container shipping?

A
  • container ships carried 60% of seaborne trade, worth $12 trillion in 2017
  • the quantity of goods carried has risen from 100 million tonnes in 1980 to 1.7 billion in 2016
  • ships have increased in size
  • the increased capacity is greater than the growth in trade, resulting in the large Hanjan Shipping Company going bankrupt in 2016
108
Q

What are the trends in oil tankers?

A
  • oil shipping accounts for 30% of global maritime trade
  • capacity of the tanker fleet has increased 73% since 2000
  • the size of a tanker is determined by the canals and chokepoints it passes through
  • the amount of oil transported can very dependent on the price of oil, in 2015 oil prices were relatively low and china stockpiled oil, using some tankers for storage
  • china creates a significant demand for tankers because it is a major importer of oil
109
Q

How do UNCLOS and IMO regulate shipping?

A
  • UNCLOS allows ships the right of peaceful passage through territorial water
  • The IMO, a UN based agency in London, regulates the shipping industry with responsibility for the safety of life at sea and protection of the marine environment, member governments are responsible for enforcing regulations
  • the IMO requires oil tankers to have double hulls to prevent spillages in the event of an accident
110
Q

How is oil pollution from tankers reduced?

A

To reduce oil pollution tankers are prohibited from flushing out empty tanks with sea water and pumping it into the sea. Sea water used as ballast when travelling empty must be carried in a segregated ballast tank and not in the empty oil tanks

111
Q

How has globalisation allowed the diversification and international nature of illegal trade?

A
  • globalised crime includes marketing of illegal and counterfeit goods across continents and the smuggling of migrants and trafficking of slaves
  • globalisation of trade has led to deregulation, which smugglers can exploit
  • globalisation has increased inequalities between places, which results in higher levels of migration, and if done illegally, people can end up vulnerable to human trafficking
112
Q

What are the 6 risks to sea floor cables?

A
  • earthquakes
  • tsunamis
  • meterological events
  • current abrasion
  • fishing and anchors
  • intentional cable cut
113
Q

How can earthquakes pose a risk to seafloor cables?

A
  • can create undersea landslides and rapid downhill flows of water (turbidity currents), which damage cables
  • for example, on the 26th december 2006 a mag earthquake off the coast of Taiwan caused a cable break and currents caused 26 faults, which took 49 days to repair, data traffic was lost at first but then slowed due to rerouting through other cables
114
Q

How can tsunamis pose a risk to sea floor cables?

A

Cables can be damaged by seabed erosion and landslides created by the tsunami.
- for example, the tsunami created by the Tohoku earthquake in 2011 damaged half of the cables crossing the pacific ocean, slowing down data transfer to the USA

115
Q

How can meterological events pose a risk to sea floor cables?

A

Storm surges and rainfall from tropical storms can damage cables close to the shore.
- for example in 2009 the typhoon Morakot caused an increase in river discharge, which carried mud into an underwater canyon, breaking 2 cables

116
Q

How can current abrasion pose as a risk to seafloor cable networks?

A

6% of faults are caused by water movements scraping cables against rocks

117
Q

How does fishing and anchors cause risk to sea floor cables?

A

Caused by trawler nets and anchors dragging on the seabed, catching cables. This accounts for 70% of faults.

118
Q

How does intentional cable cut cause risk to sea floor cables?

A

Sabotage is rare due to difficulties accessing cables and dangers of high voltages
- in march 2003, 3 men were arrested for attempting to cut a cable off the coast of egypt, which resulted in a 60% drop in internet speeds

119
Q

How can international conventions protect sea floor data cables?

A
  • the first treaty on submarine cables was in 1884
  • UNCLOS states that members must use domestic legislation to penalise cable damage by ships in their jurisdiction
  • members are free to lay cables in their EEZ and on the continental shelf
  • states must establish no fishing or anchoring zones around these cables
  • cable owners are allowed to use radar tracking systems to monitor ship movements and can then warn ships if they are too close to cables. These are sometimes avoided because they could give information to saboteurs
120
Q

What mineral resources are of great importance in maritime environments?

A
  • sand and gravel for construction
  • minerals such as diamonds in south africa
  • gold off the alaskan coast
  • manganese nodules which are rocks that contain iron, nickel, copper, titanium and cobalt are of great economic and industrial importance
  • cobalt crusts are metallic layers on the edge of submarine volcanoes, over half being in the Pacific ocean
121
Q

How is fossil fuel extraction important in maritime environments?

A
  • around 1/3 of all oil and gas extracted from offshore sources
  • areas that are economically viable to extract, known as reserves, are found in many parts of the world
  • as many shallow-water reserves, such as the north sea and coastal areas around the USA are being exhausted, companies are moving to reserves in deeper waters
  • technological advances have resulted in the discovery of over 400 major deposits in deep-water locations, such as the Santos Basin off Brazils coast
122
Q

What is a continental shelf?

A

A broad, relatively shallow, gently sloping section of the seabed, which is part of the continental crust.

123
Q

How can EEZs result in geopolitical tensions and contested ownership?

A
  • conflicts can arise where eezs overlap and countries disagree over the ownership of the islands
  • china has claimed island groups (including man made islands) in the south china sea
  • this gives china access to possible resources and control over important oil transportation routes
  • surrounding countries, especially the philpines, have contested these claims
  • in 2016, the UN declared the man made islands too small to have EEZs and found in favour of the Philipines, china declared the decision unlawful
124
Q

Describe the issue of contested ownership of Artic Ocean resources.

A
  • canada, norway, russia, USA and denmark all have an artic ocean coastline
  • the ocean contains possibly vat reserves of oil and gas, minerals and other ores
  • as the sea ice diminishes, it becomes easier to access these resources
  • the artic nations are laying down claims to the Artic
  • countries such as china are interested in resources, whilst MNCs are researching oil and gas reserves
    -with less sea ice, travel companies are wanting to send cruise ships into the area, canada wants to claim control of the Northwest passage as an important route from the Atlantic Ocean to the pacific ocean, the us disputes this claim
125
Q

What 2 injustices arise from unequal access to ocean resources?

A
  • landlocked countries
  • indigenous people
126
Q

How do landlocked countries have unequal access to ocean resources?

A
  • 45 countries without a coastline gain no benefit from ocean resources
  • landlocked countries have the rights to access and utilise the ocean but access through other countries is difficult
  • goods can be delayed at border crossings, with clearance processes adding to the cost, for example goods for Uganda take 5 days longer than domestic goods to leave Tanzania’s Dar Es Salaam port
  • difficulties in trading can lead to slower economic growth, 16 landlocked countries are among the poorest in the world
127
Q

Why do indigenous people suffer from unequal access to ocean resources?

A
  • fishing and seafood are an important part of the culture of coastal indigenous people in many places, including north america, africa and the artic
  • off the african coast, commercial fishing boats have encroached on native fishing areas, with impacts on the local population, for example in Madagascar community fishing stocks have been almost destroyed
    -mineral extraction by foreign companies can impact the activities of local people
128
Q

What are the global commons?

A

The global scale, natural assets that are outside the jurisdiction of any nation
- high seas
- atmosphere
- antartica
- outerspace

129
Q

What is over exploitation?

A

Harvesting species from the wild at a rate faster than natural population can recover.

130
Q

What is the tradegy of the commons and how does this link to the uses of the high seas?

A

The concept of TOC is that common resources will be overexploited unless there is some form of regulation
- despite each nation having responsibility for its own eez, there is a need for international cooperation in sustainable management as fish stocks and pollution is interlinked between eez boundaries and the high seas
- the importance of sustainable development is reflected in the UN Sustainable Development Goal 14 - ‘conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development’
- concerns over human activity and its impact on the oceans has been responsible for demands to protect the marine environment, for example the eventual ban on whale hunting by the IWC and recent demands to control plastic pollution

131
Q

How has over exploitation of the ocean via overfishing increased in recent years?

A
  • increasing populations leading to an increased demand for food
  • a global doubling in fish consumption, from about 10kg per person to 20kg in 2016, most of this originating from changing wealth and tastes in China
  • increase in fishing fleets, over 55% of oceans are fished industrially by over 70,000 fishing vessels. Factory fishing boats are able to stay at sea longer, processing and freezing catches
  • improvement in technology allow fishing boats to find and track shoals of fish that previously would have gone unnoticed
  • in the high sea there are limited rules regarding fishing practices. In regulated areas, the size of the fishing grounds and the lack of resources make enforcing regulations more difficult
  • some large scale fisheries receive government subsideries, which results in more boats than are needed to supply for the demand
  • one 1.5% of the oceans are protected areas and most of these are open to fishing, which can deplete fish stocks
132
Q

What are the consequences to overfishing?

A
  • as fish stocks decreases, prices may rise out of reach of poorer members of the population
  • as fish prices rise, more developing countries export their fish for international trade, leaving only locally caught fish available for the population
    -competition from large commercial fleets can outcompete smaller fisheries, resulting in loss of livelihood and unemployment
  • the collapse of the Newfoundland fishery in Canada in 1992 made 40,000 unemployed
  • in the EU, the common fisheries policy sets quotas for how much of each type of fish them member countries can catch, in attempt to manage fish stocks. This has been blamed for unemployment and affecting the livelihood of fishermen in places for Scotland
133
Q

What are the 4 methods of sustainable management of marine environments?

A
  • no catch zones
  • marine protected areas
  • marine conservation zones
  • fishing quotas
134
Q

How do no catch zones promote sustainable fishing?

A
  • form part of no take zones, which are marine areas where the removal of any resources is prohibited
  • there are 3 zones in the UK, Lundy, Flamborough Head and Lamlash bay, where taking fish is prohibited for reasons for nature conservation
135
Q

How do Marine Protected Areas promote sustainable fishing?

A

Areas of the marine environment that have been reserved by law to protect part or all of the natural resources within them
They can limit fishing, mining and tourism
Most are found within the territorial waters where government involved can enforce them
The great barrier reef of the coast of Queensland is an MPA

136
Q

How do Marine Conservation zones promote sustainable fishing?

A

The 2009 UK marine and coastal access act allowed the creation of MCZs
They are designed to protect a range of nationally important marine wildlife and habitats
There are 50 MCZs in the seas around England protecting over 20,000 km of sea, including offshore Brighton in the english channel, which covers a diverse range of species living in an area of 826km

137
Q

How do fishing quotas promote sustainable fishing?

A

To reduce catches to a biologically and economically stable level authorities will introduce Total Allowable Catches (TACs)
Quotas are based on scientific advice on fish stocks
The EU, USA and New Zealand employ quotas

138
Q

What are the 4 sources of marine pollution?

A
  • terrestrial runoff
  • waste disposal
  • oil spills
  • pollution from the atmosphere
139
Q

How is terrestrial runoff a form of marine pollution?

A

Water running from the land can pollute the oceans by carrying many contaminants
- fertilisers, pesticides and particles rich in nitrogen and phosphorus from agricultural land
- oil from road surfaces
- waste from industrial activity
- treated and untreated sewage
- domestic waste water, which may contain chemicals from products used in the home and plastic microbeads used in toiletries
- litter, especially in plastic products, which get blown or washed into rivers and carried to the sea

140
Q

How is waste disposal a source of marine pollution?

A

As well as sewage disposal, other materials are disposed at sea
- rubbish is dumped from shipping, in the north sea 40% of marine litter come from shipping, creating 20,000 tonnes of waste
- over 80% of all waste dumped at sea is material that has been dredged from elsewhere

141
Q

How are oil spills a source of marine pollution?

A

Oil spills can result from shipping accidents and also from leaks from extraction activities
- tanker accidents have reduced from an average 24.5 per year in the 1970s to 1.7 since 2010
- between 2000 and 2017 there were 53 spills from tankers, resulting in 47,000 tonnes of oil being lost
- leaks can occur from seabed oil wells. In 2010 an explosion in the BP oil rig Deepwater Horizon in the Gulf Of Mexico led to a 3 month oil spill that allowed over 6000 tonnes of oil a day to escape

142
Q

How does pollution from the atmosphere contribute to marine pollution?

A

The ocean naturally absorbs carbon dioxide. As the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases due to climate change, the oceans absorb more and become more acidic.

143
Q

What are dead zones?

A

Areas with such low concentrations of oxygen that they are unable to support marine life. While they can occur naturally, they are often caused or enhanced by pollution from human activities

144
Q

How do eutrophic dead zones form?

A

Phosphorus, nitrogen and other nutrients are washed into the sea, increasing the productivity of marine ecosystems
Phytoplankton, algae and seaweed grow rapidly and excessively on the surface, creating an algal bloom
Algal blooms prevent light penetrating the surface to organisms below and prevent oxygen being absorbed by organisms
The number and diversity of organisms (especially those on the seabed) are reduced
The lack of fish below algal blooms can impact on wading birds and mammals (eg sealion) that rely on fish for food
Algal blooms usually die out quickly because there is not enough oxygen to support them
The dead organisms sink to the seabed and are decomposed by bacteria
Decomposition uses up the almost all the oxygen, creating a dead zone where most aquatic species cannot survive

145
Q

What are plastic garbage patches?

A
  • the massive increase in the use of plastics globally has led to large amounts finding their way into the oceans
  • plastic bottles can take up to 450 years and fishing lines 600 years to break down
  • UV rays and ocean environment break the plastic down into microplastics
  • scientists have discovered that degrading plastics release toxic chemicals such as bisphenol into the ocean
146
Q

What are gyres?

A

Circulating ocean currents that can consolidate debris into certain parts of the worlds oceans known as garbage patches.

147
Q

What is the north pacific garbage patch?

A

The north pacific has created the pacific garbage patch which is-
- over 1.6 million km2 (three times the size of france)
- estimated to contain 1.8 trillion pieces of plastic
- largely made up of discarded or lost fishing gear (over half)

148
Q

How can plastic waste endanger sea life?

A
  • animals can get entangled, restricting movement and causing starvation or injuries that become infected. Dolphins and turtles get caught up or lost in fishing nets
  • seabirds ingest plastic, often mistaking it for food. Plastic is found in the stomach of 80% of seabirds, with the highest concentrations around south australia, south africa and south america
149
Q

How do oilspills endanger seabirds?

A
  • when oil gets on to the feathers it prevents birds from flying
  • it destroys the waterproofing and insulation, resulting in death from hypothermia
  • birds preening their feathers when trying to recover ingest oil, which can damage internal organs, leading to death
150
Q

How do oilspills affect animals?

A
  • the blowholes of whales and dolphins become clogged, affecting breathing
  • oil coats the fur of otters and seals, making them vulnerable to hypothermia
  • fish can poisoned by oil, especially once it has become a thin emulsion in the water
151
Q

What happened during The Exxon Valdez oilspill?

A

The exxon valdez oil spill in 1989 killed up to 500,000 seabirds, thousands of otters, hundreds of seals and 24 killer whales. Billions of salmon and herring eggs were destroyed, and fish stocks have still not recovered

152
Q

What are the UNCLOS strategies do to manage marine waste?

A
  • each coastal state can enforce its pollution measures in the marine sea of its EEZ
  • states are required to cooperate with global and regional efforts to combat pollution
153
Q

What are the EU’s Marine Strategy Framework Directive strategies on managing marine waste?

A
  • achieve and maintain ‘good environmental status’ of marine environment by 2020
  • protect and preserve marine environments and where possible, restore marine ecosystems
  • prevent and reduce inputs on marine ecosystems to ensure there are no significant impacts on marine ecosystems, biodiversity and human health
154
Q

What are the UK policies to manage marine waste?

A
  • microbeads have been planned in toiletries
  • the charge for carrier bags intended to reduce waste going to landfill has reduced plastic bag usage and so decreased the chance of bags entering the ocean
  • in 2018, the government promised £61.4 million to deal with plastic pollution in the oceans. This included-
  • £25 million for research
  • £20 million used to reduce plastic and other pollution entering the seas from manufacturing in developing countries
  • £16.4 million for improving waste management to stop plastics entering water
  • many NGOs, such as Friends of the Earth and Greenpeace, have attempted to raise the issue of plastic pollution
  • in 2017 the final episode of the BBC TV series Blue Planet raised awareness in the UK of the issue, leading to demands from many individuals for something to be done
155
Q

What is the Ocean Clean Up Foundation?

A

A non-profit foundation set up in 2013 by 18 year old Boyan Slat, aims to develop technologies to remove plastic from oceans. it aims to clear half of the Pacific garbage patch within 5 years

156
Q
A