Issues and Debates: Paper 3 Flashcards
What is Gender Bias?
A01: Gender Bias in Psychology
This means that a person’s views about gender is distorted in some way or presented in a biased way.
This gender bias leads to differential treatment of males and females, based on stereotypes and not real differences.
What is the meaning of the WEIRD acronym?
A01: Gender Bias & Cultural Bias in Psychology
Refers to how a majourity of participants in psychological research are from:
Western
Educated
Industralised
Rich
Democratic societies.
What is Alpha Bias?
Can you provide an example of a study that has an alpha bias?
A01: Gender Bias in Psychology
Alpha Bias – This refers to theories that exaggerate differences between males and females.
✩ Freud’s theories reflected the cultural he lived in. In the nineteenth century, men were more powerful and educated and thus regarded as superior to women. His theory had thus been centred on the development of men
✩ Freud and many of his followers believed that biological differences between men and women had major consequences for psychological development.
Why does Freud’s study also suffer from androcentrism, and how does this exclude women?
A01: Gender Bias in Psychology
✩ His theory suffers from androcentrism as it focuses on the development of men to the detriment of woman’s development.
Women are seen as inferior to men because they realise that they have no penis and become jealous of men’s penises (penis envy) and because they cannot undergo the same Oedipus conflict as boys do (through castration anxiety)
✩ According to the Freudian view, the superego develops from the Oedipus conflict. This implies that, in Freud’s view, women are deemed morally inferior due to a presumed weaker identification with their mothers.
What is Beta Bias, and how does this affect views in psychological research?
A01: Gender Bias in Psychology
Beta Bias – This refers to theories that have traditionally ignored or minimised sex differences. These theories often assume that the findings from males can apply equally to females.
✩ The result of beta bias in psychological research is that we end up with a view of human nature that is supposed to apply to men and women alike, but in fact, has a male or androcentric bias.
How does this link the theory of universality?
A01: Gender Bias in Psychology
Universality – Beta bias links to the the idea of universality in that there are a range of psychological characteristics of human beings that can be applied to all of us despite differences in experiences and upbringing, in this case regarding gender.
Can you provide an example of Beta Bias?
A01: Gender Bias in Psychology
✩ For example, Asch’s (1955) conformity studies involved all male participants, as did many of the other conformity studies (e.g., Perrin & Spencer, 1980) and therefore it was assumed that females would respond in the same way, however there may have been sex differences between boys and girls that could have affected the results of the studies.
Research into Gender Bias has helped reduce Gender Bias in the psychological field and society.
A03: Gender Bias in Psychology
Equal opportunity legislation and feminist psychology have performed the valuable functions of reducing institutionalised gender bias and drawing attention to sources of bias and under-researched areas in psychology like childcare, sexual abuse, dual burden working and prostitution.
The prominence of female researchers like Ainsworth and Loftus have also led to increased acknowledgement of women in the psychological field
Taking a feminist approach to reduce Gender Bias
A03: Gender Bias in Psychology
Another way to reduce gender bias is to take a feminist approach which attempts to restore the imbalance in both psychological theories and research.
Research from Dweck on whether ‘Math’s is a gift, and how this poses a risk to females’ found that girls who viewed maths as a more natural gift that cannot be controlled performed significantly worse than boys in mathematics throughout their lives.
This had led to interventions being developed that address this factor shrinking this percieved gender difference (an eight-session intervention for junior high school tudents that taught them the idea that intellectual skills can be developed)
Thus rearch into gender bias in psychology has positive applications in creating a more equal and fair society.
One limitation is the biased dissemination of research results through academic journals.
A03: Gender Bias in Psychology
This is a limitation because the publishing bias leans towards more positive results.
This means that research that finds gender differences between men and women are more likely to get published than research that doesn’t, thus exaggerating the extent of gender differences between men and woman.
One limitation is that gender bias can work against males as well as females, as sometimes alpha bias theories heighten the value of women.
A03: Gender Bias in Psychology
Evidence to support this comes from research that has found that women are more likely to be diagnosed with depression and given treatment than males.
This could be because women are more likely to suffer from depression, or it could also be because the diagnostic system may be biased towards finding depression among women.
There may be an internalised expectation for males to ‘man up’ and ‘pulling themselves together’ which is viewed as a masculine trait, highlighting issues with the psychological diagnostic systems.
Psychological research about women’s ability has led to lower self-esteem, when findings may not be universal.
A03: Gender Bias in Psychology
Judgements about an individual women’s ability are made on the basis of average differences between the sexes or biased sex-role stereotypes, and this also had the effect of lowering women’s self-esteem; making them, rather than men, think they have to improve themselves (Tavris, 1993).
Issues of gender bias often go unchallenged in psychological research.
A03: Gender Bias in Psychology
For example, Darwin’s established theory of sexual selection suggests that women are selective (choosy) in terms of mate selection. These views have only recently been challenged by DNA evidence suggesting that women are equally as competitive as men when the need arises.
Research into gender bias in psychology has social sensitive issues.
A03: Gender Bias in Psychology
Feminists argue that although gender differences are minimal or non-existent, they are used against women to maintain male power and thus sustain prejudices and stereotypes regarding genders.
For example, Kitzinger argues that questions about sex differences aren’t just scientific questions – they’re also political (such as women having the same rights as men). So, gender differences distorted to maintain the status quo of male power. For example, there may be a bias towards rejecting women from attending male-dominant universities such as Imperial College London.
Helped reduce the impact of socially sensitive research who may misinterpret research findings.
A03: Gender Bias in Psychology
In reporting research findings, it is crucial to clearly state that the theories, findings and conclusions are specific to the gender represented in the sample.
This transparency helps to minimise the risk of other researchers or the media misinterpreting the results as universally applicable.
What is culture bias?
What research shows that there is cultural bias in psychological research?
A01: Cultural Bias
✩ Culture bias occurs when all human behaviour is interpreted from only one cultural viewpoint and this seems to occur frequently as most research is performed on ‘WEIRD’ participants (western, educated, industrialised, rich and democratic)
✩ Research from Smith and Bond provides evidence for cultural bias as they found that 66% of participants in European textbooks on social psychology were American, 32% European, and only 2% from the rest of the world.
What do Western psychologists typically assume about their findings?
A01: Cultural Bias
✩ Western psychologists routinely generalise their findings from societies in small sections of the world like this onto people as a whole, but findings of psychological research conducted in one culture may not apply directly to another.
What is universality?
A01: Cultural Bias
✩ When a theory is described as universal, it means that it can apply to all people, irrespective of culture.
What is cultural relativism, and why can it be used to question some psychological research?
A01: Cultural Bias
✩ Rather, psychologists believe that taking a cultural relativist approach would benefit psychological research greatly.
This means that behaviours and concepts can only be understood correctly from the perspective of their cultural context.
Therefore, any study which draws its sample from only one cultural context (like American college students) and then generalises its findings to all people everywhere can be questioned by psychologists in terms of cultural relativism.
What is the difference between etic and emic constructs?
A01: Cultural Bias
✩ An etic construct is a behaviour that is thought to be universal across all cultural groups (i.e.: smiling when happy).
✩ An emic construct is a behaviour that only applies to certain cultural groups.
What is an emic approach?
A01: Cultural Bias
An emic approach refers to the investigation of a culture from within the culture itself.
This means that research of European society from a European perspective is emic.
What is ethnocentrism?
A01: Cultural Bias
✩ Ethnocentrism is when a researcher takes their own culture as the norm and interprets deviations from this as ‘abnormal’. Ethnocentrism is an often-unintentional lack of awareness that other ways of seeing things can be as valid as one’s own.
Can you explain a psychological study that it is ethnocentric?
A01: Cultural Bias
✩ Ainsworth’s Strange Situation is an example of ethnocentric research, as it may not accurately assess child-rearing practises and values in other cultures that may differ from Western individualistic societies like America.
It is believed that the most desirable outcome of the Strange Situation is Secure Attachment and is seen as the ‘healthy attachment type’.
The Strange Situation has been described as an imposed etic, where a technique or theory is developed in one culture and then imposed on another because it fails to take into account that different cultural norms can influence an infants behaviour in the assessment.
For example, German children, on average, demonstrate a higher rate of insecure-avoidant behaviour as German parents and society, value and encourage independent behaviour, therefore explaining why their children reacted differently in the Strange Situation.
Labelling these behaviours as insecure based on a Western standard is ethnocentric.
How has research into cultural bias in psychology helped us attempt to achieve universality?
A03: Cultural Bias
+ Regarding culture, one way to achieve universality would be to employ what Berry (1969) described as a derived etic. This is where a series of emic studies take place in local settings, conducted by local researchers using local techniques.
Such studies can build up a picture of human behaviour in a similar way to the ethnographic approach taken by anthropologists. This is the study of different cultures through the use of comparisons, as by making comparisons between cultures we can learn more about a target culture.
Has been successfully applied in real life to reduce ethnocentrism.
A03: Cultural Bias
One strength of research into cultural bias in psychology is that now travel plays a huge role in psychology now on a professional level as well as personal (conferences).
This is a strength because the greater exchange of ideas should reduce ethnocentrism in the future of psychology.
Culturally biased research can have significant real-world effects by, for example, amplifying and validating damaging stereotypes.
A03: Cultural Bias
The US Army used an IQ test before WWI which was culturally biased toward the dominant white majority.
The test showed that African Americans were at the bottom of the IQ scale, and this had a negative effect on the attitudes of Americans toward this group of people, which highlights the negative impact that culturally biased research can have on social groups such as African Americans.
Why can taking a reflexive approach in psychological research reduce cultural bias?
A03: Cultural Bias
A reflexive approach involves researchers actively reflecting on their beliefs, values and experiences.
This self-awareness is crucial for recognising how these personal factors might influence the research process, this can help identify stereotypes that could affect the interpretation of participant behaviour.
This approach also aids the adaptation of research methods to ensure that their are culturally relevant and sensitive to the diverse background of participants.
By being reflexive, therefore, researchers can reduce cultural biases and enhance the validity of their findings.
How can we minimise risk of interpreting research as universal?
A03: Cultural Bias
In reporting research findings, it is crucial to clearly state that the theories, findings and conclusions are specific to the culture represented in the sample.
This transparency helps to minimise the risk of other researchers or the media misinterpreting the results as universally applicable.
Why will cultural bias continue to persist?
A03: Cultural Bias
Research is likely to continue over-representing American college students due to the ease and low cost of obtaining them as an opportunity sample.
Distinction between individualism and collectivism is blurring.
A03: Cultural Bias
Psychologists have often referred to culture in the context of individualism versus collectivism. Individualist cultures (US) value the individual and independence, whereas collectivist cultures (India) value the group interdependence.
Critics argue that this is a lazy and simplistic distinction that no longer applies due to globalisation.
For example, Takano and Osaka (1999) found that 14 out of 15 studies comparing the US and Japan found no evidence of a distinction between the two types of culture
This is a weakness because it could suggest that this form of cultural bias is less of a an issue than it once was
Cross-cultural research may be difficult due to the unfamiliarity with the research tradition
A03: Cultural Bias
When conducting research in western culture the participants familiarity with the general aims and objectives of scientific research is assumed to be already known.
In cultures without historical experience of research such as the Ugyhurs, knowledge of scientific enquiries may not be known which could mean that local populations may be more affected by demand characteristics than western participants.
This is a weakness because unfamiliarity with the research tradition threatens the validity of the outcome and limits our understanding of results in other cultures.
What is social sensitivity?
A01: Ethical Implications of Research Studies and Theory
✩ Sieber and Stanley (1988) used the term social sensitivity to describe studies where there are potential social consequences for the participants, or the group of people represented by the research.
Can you give an example of how social groups may be have been used to discriminate against social groups such as US blacks?
A01: Ethical Implications of Research Studies and Theory
✩ IQ tests administered to black Americans show that they typically score 15 points below the average white score.
When black Americans are given these tests, they presumably complete them willingly and are in no way harmed as individuals.
However, when published, findings of this sort seek to reinforce racial stereotypes and are used to discriminate against the black population in the job market etc.
What are examples of some groups that may be affected by socially sensitive psychological research?
A01: Ethical Implications of Research Studies and Theory
Members of the social group being studied such as racial or ethnic group. For example, early research on IQ was used to discriminate against US Blacks.
Friends and relatives of those taking part in the study, particularly in case studies, where individuals may become famous or infamous. Cases that spring to mind would include Genie’s mother.
Government bodies may use psychological findings to develop policies or legislation that are not in the interest of the researched groups. For example, funding to programmes that help certain groups could be reduced.
The Milgram Experiment is a socially sensitive research that can be linked to several ethical issues.
How so?
A01: Ethical Implications of Research Studies and Theory
The Milgram Experiment is a socially sensitive research that can be linked to several ethical issues.
✩ Deception – The participants actually believed they were shocking a real person and were unaware the learner was a confederate of Milgram’s.
✩ Unable to exercise their right to withdraw - Participants who wanted to withdraw from the study were informed that they had no choice but to go on due to the verbal prods given by the experimenter.
What are ways that people are dealing with the ethical implications of socially sensitive research?
A01: Ethical Implications of Research Studies and Theory
✩ Researchers should not avoid researching socially sensitive issues. Scientists have a responsibility to society to find useful knowledge.
- The media may report findings in a biased or sensationalised way. This means when writing up research for publications, researchers should consider that their findings will be misused and must make the limitations of their research explicit (e.g. ‘the study was only carried out on white middle class American male students’, ‘the study is based on questionnaire data, which may be inaccurate’, etc.
- They need to take more care over consent, debriefing, etc., when the issue is sensitive. The researchers should make effective use of briefing and debriefing processes, especially if the use of potentially harmful methods is unavoidable e.g. psychological harm in anxiety studies.
- An ethics committee makes the ultimate decision if a study should go ahead. This is reasoned through conducting a cost-benefit analysis; If the costs of the research (e.g. on broader society and participants) outweigh the potential/actual benefits, it is unethical and cannot go through.
Not all socially sensitive research is controversial.
A03: Ethical Implications of Research Studies and Theory
+ However, not all socially sensitive research is controversial, and some findings can be desirable and beneficial to society. For example, research examining the use of children in eye-witness testimony has found them to be reliable witnesses when questioned in an appropriate manner. In this context, socially sensitive research has resulted in a good working relationship between psychologists and the legal profession.
Why is Milgram’s Experiment beneficial to wider society?
A03: Ethical Implications of Research Studies and Theory
+ However, benefit of the research is that findings of Milgram have helped to reduce prejudice against Germans that had been strong in the post war years, and increased our understanding of human behaviour in showing us that in obedience to authority human behaviour is universal and influenced heavily by situational factors.
