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A&P II Lecture > final exam > Flashcards

final exam Flashcards

1
Q

What is stratified epithelium?

A

many layers of cells packed closely together; tough/good for protection; lines nasal vestibule & oropharynx

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2
Q

What is respiratory epithelium?

A

very delicate; one layer of pseudostratified epithelium that is made of column-shaped cells with cilia that project from their apical surface; lines nasal conchae, nasopharynx, & trachea

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3
Q

What are goblet cells?

A

can be found scattered throughout respiratory epithelium; produces mucous

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4
Q

What is the anterior boundary of the nose?

A

the nose holes which are called the anterior nares

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5
Q

What is the posterior boundary of the nose?

A

2 holes known as posterior nares that connect to the pharynx

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6
Q

What is the pharyngeal tonsil?

A

embedded in posterior wall of nasopharynx; lump of lymphatic tissue that filters debris & pathogens from air

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7
Q

What are palatine tonsils?

A

a pair contained in the oropharynx; they catch pathogens & debris to remove them/filter them out

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8
Q

Where is the opening to the auditory tube?

A

the nasopharynx

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9
Q

What is inspiration?

A

to breathe in; increases size of thoracic cavity by contracting intercostal muscles & flattening the diaphragm causing air to rush in

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10
Q

What is expiration?

A

to breathe out; decreases size of thoracic cavity by contracting intercostal muscles & relaxing the diaphragm causing air to exit

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11
Q

What are the surfaces of the lungs?

A

costal which faces the ribs & mediastinal which faces the midline of the body

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12
Q

How does gas exchange occur?

A

through diffusion (with the concentration gradient)

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13
Q

How many lobes are the lungs divided into?

A

2 on the left & 3 on the right

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14
Q

What is the apex & the base of the lungs?

A

the apex is the pointed superior part & the base is the flat inferior part that rests on the diaphragm

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15
Q

What is the fauces?

A

opening in the back of the mouth that leads into the pharynx

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16
Q

What tissue layers make up the entire GI tract (from deep to superficial)?

A

mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, & covering

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17
Q

What is the mucosa of the GI tract?

A

layer of mucous epithelium that lines the tract; the mucous produced by goblet cells protects this lining; 3 parts = mucous epithelium, lamina propria, & muscularis mucosa

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18
Q

What is the submucosa of the GI tract?

A

thick layer of connective tissue containing blood vessels, glands, and nerves

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19
Q

What is the submucosal plexus?

A

formed by the nerves of the submucosa; controls the muscularis mucosa

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20
Q

What is the muscularis of the GI tract?

A

smooth muscle layers that contract to push food through the lumen of the GI tract; this is called peristalsis

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21
Q

What is the myenteric plexus?

A

embedded in the muscularis nerves; it is controlled by the ANS & allows for peristalsis; sympathetic stimulation slows this activity & parasympathetic stimulation speeds it up

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22
Q

What is the covering of the GI tract?

A

the outermost layer; 2 types which are serosa & adventitia

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23
Q

What secretory cells are contained in the gastric pits?

A

chief cells, parietal cells, & enteroendocrine cells

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24
Q

What are chief cells?

A

secrete pepsinogen (an inactive molecule) that is converted into an active form called pepsin which begins protein digestion

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25
Q

What are parietal cells?

A

secrete hydrochloric acid which keeps stomach pH at approximately 1.5; secrete intrinsic factor which promotes absorption of vitamin B12

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26
Q

What are enteroendocrine cells?

A

produce a variety of hormones such as ghrelin & gastrin

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27
Q

Which organ absorbs nutrients?

A

small intestine

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28
Q

What is ghrelin?

A

hormone that stimulates hunger

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29
Q

What is gastrin?

A

hormone secreted as the stomach enlarges & stomach pH increases; it stimulates chief cells & parietal cells; increases peristalsis activity

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30
Q

What are villi?

A

finger-like projections that cover each plicae circularis fold; each one contains an arteriole, a venule, & a lacteal

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31
Q

What is the arteriole of the villi?

A

a small artery that delivers oxygenated blood to enterocytes to keep them alive

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32
Q

What is the venule of the villi?

A

a small vein that absorbs nutrients from the lumen & picks up CO2 from enterocytes (inside this vein is nutrient rich, O2 poor blood)

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33
Q

What is the lacteal of the villi?

A

a small lymph vessel that absorbs specific fats

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34
Q

What does the liver do with the “dirty” blood that enters through the portal vein?

A

filters out cell fragments, pieces of bacteria, drugs such as tylenol, & alcohol to detoxify the blood

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35
Q

What does the liver manufacture?

A

cholesterol; this is essential in cell membranes

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36
Q

What does the liver do to ammonia that comes from protein digestion?

A

it converts it into a less toxic form that is then removed from the blood by the kidneys

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37
Q

What is bilirubin?

A

a pigment that the liver removes from the hemoglobin of old, worn out red blood cells; it is yellow/brown colored molecule that is disposed of in feces

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38
Q

What is albumin?

A

a protein made by the liver that regulates the osmotic pressure of blood to prevent swelling

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39
Q

What is bile?

A

a green liquid made by the liver (secreted by hepatocytes) that breaks big pieces of fat into smaller ones that are more easily digested by enzymes

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40
Q

What is glycogen?

A

an excess sugar that is given short-term storage in the liver & will be converted to fat if it is not used quickly

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41
Q

What is net filtration rate?

A

10 mmHg; calculated by glomerular blood hydrostatic pressure - (blood colloidal osmotic pressure + capsular hydrostatic pressure)

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42
Q

What are the protective layers of the kidney (deep to superficial)?

A

renal capsule, adipose capsule, & renal fascia

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43
Q

What is the renal capsule of the kidney?

A

attaches to the kidney surface; very delicate & thin; holds parts of the kidney together to prevent infection

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44
Q

What is the adipose capsule of the kidney?

A

layer of fat that cushions the kidney

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45
Q

What is the renal fascia of the kidney?

A

tough superficial connective tissue covering that binds kidney in place

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46
Q

What is glomerular blood hydrostatic pressure?

A

force of blood in glomerulus pushing filtrate INTO capsular space; varies with overall body blood pressure but is usually 60 mmHg

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47
Q

What is capsular hydrostatic pressure?

A

force of Bowman’s capsule pushing some filtrate BACK INTO GLOMERULUS; usually 18 mmHg

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48
Q

What is blood colloidal osmotic pressure?

A

attraction of some filtrate so that it travels BACK INTO GLOMERULUS; usually 32 mmHg

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49
Q

What is the flow of urine?

A

renal papilla ⤏ minor calyx ⤏ major calyx ⤏ renal pelvis ⤏ out of kidney through ureter ⤏ urinary bladder ⤏ exits through urethra

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50
Q

What is the flow of filtrate?

A

capsular space ⤏ PCT ⤏ Henle’s loop ⤏ DCT ⤏ collecting tubule ⤏ renal papilla

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51
Q

When is ANP released?

A

cells in the wall of the heart’s right atrium can become stretched due to high blood pressure, causing them to they release a hormone called atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)

52
Q

What does ANP do?

A

travels to the kidneys & causes a reduction in Na+ reabsorption from filtrate into the blood of the vasa recta, causing Na+ to stay in filtrate & become part of urine, causing a reduction in blood volume & pressure

53
Q

What are the components of a nephron?

A

glomerulus, Bowman’s capsule, PCT, Henle’s loop, DCT, & collecting tubule

54
Q

When is renin released?

A

special cells in the wall of the DCT near glomerulus & in the wall of the afferent arteriole release an enzyme called renin in response to low blood pressure

55
Q

What does renin do?

A

travels through the blood & converts lots of molecules eventually forming a hormone called angiotensin II

56
Q

What are juxtaglomerular cells?

A

the special cells that release renin; they constantly monitor filtrate pressure in DCT & blood pressure in the afferent arteriole

57
Q

What does angiotensin II do?

A

constricts “peripheral blood flow” & efferent arterioles even more than usual, stimulates thirst to increase blood volume & pressure, & triggers adrenal glands to release aldosterone

58
Q

What is antidiuretic hormone (ADH)?

A

it enhances the reabsorption of water; it makes the DCT & collecting tubules more permeable to water so that it exits the tubules & enters the vasa recta

59
Q

What is tubular reabsorption?

A

keeps the good/useful stuff

60
Q

What is tubular secretion?

A

gets rid of bad/excess stuff

61
Q

What is the urethra?

A

a tube that extends from the inferior part of the bladder to the outside of the body

62
Q

What is the ureter?

A

12 inch long tube that carries urine from the renal pelvis to the urinary bladder

63
Q

What is the prostate?

A

approximately 30 gland units wrapped by a fibrous capsule; donut shaped encircling the urethra

64
Q

What is the purpose of the prostate’s secretions?

A

it enhances sperm motility to make them move straighter and faster

65
Q

What are the bulbourethral glands?

A

a pair of pea-sized glands embedded in the inferior body wall to the left & right of the urethra

66
Q

What do the bulbourethral glands secrete?

A

mucous that coats the urethra to protect sperm from urine residue & raises vaginal pH

67
Q

What are the seminal vesicles?

A

a pair of honeycomb shaped glands located on the posterior inferior surface of the bladder

68
Q

What do the seminal vesicles secrete?

A

carbohydrates that the sperm’s mitochondria use for ATP generation

69
Q

Is vaginal pH acidic/low or alkaline/high?

A

acidic/low

70
Q

Are sperm cells diploid or haploid?

A

diploid with 23 chromosomes

71
Q

Where does fertilization occur?

A

fallopian tubes

72
Q

When does ovulation occur?

A

halfway through cycle (day 14 of 28 day cycle)

73
Q

What are characteristics of daughter cells in mitosis & meiosis?

A

mitosis = diploid & meiosis = haploid

74
Q

What are seminiferous tubules?

A

each lobule is filled with 1-3; tiny coiled tubes where sperm is produced; approximately 0.5 miles of these tubes per testis

75
Q

What is spermatogenesis?

A

sperm creation; triggered by the combination of testosterone & ABP; occurs in seminiferous tubules

76
Q

What is spermiogenesis?

A

a process by which excess cytoplasm is enzymatically removed by Sertoli nurse cells to transform spermatids into mature sperm

77
Q

What are gonads?

A

unisex term for the organs that produce sperm or egg (testes/ovaries)

78
Q

What are gametes?

A

unisex term for sperm/egg

79
Q

When are FSH & LH released in males?

A

at the same time after GnRH travels to the anterior part of the pituitary gland

80
Q

When are FSH & LH released in females?

A

separately; FSH is released after GnRH travels to the brain’s anterior pituitary gland; LH is released when high estrogen levels trigger the brain’s anterior pituitary gland which is called the “burst of LH” & occurs on day 14 of a 28-day cycle

81
Q

How are cardiac muscle cells autorhythmic?

A

they can contract spontaneously without electrical impulses; when these cells touch each other they contract as a unit

82
Q

What are megakaryocytes?

A

big cells that fragment into pieces called platelets which are very small, have no nucleus & minimal organelles, so they only live 5-7 days

83
Q

What are erythrocytes?

A

red blood cells; biconcave disk shaped cells (this shape is perfect for hemoglobin to fit inside) with no nucleus once mature

84
Q

What is pulmonary heart failure?

A

occurs when the right side doesn’t fully eject blood which causes blood to back up into the right atrium & inferior vena cava

85
Q

What happens as a result of pulmonary heart failure?

A

swelling of the extremities, especially feet, ankles, and legs; can cause serous fluid to leak from the skin (weeping heart failure)

86
Q

What is a syncytium?

A

the units in which cardiac muscle cells are arranged; this arrangement allows the heart to contract with a slight twist to properly pump blood

87
Q

What is the flow of blood through the heart in pulmonary circulation?

A

deoxygenated blood enters right atrium through superior vena cava, inferior vena cava, & coronary sinus opening ⤏ tricuspid valve ⤏ right ventricle ⤏ pulmonary semilunar valve ⤏ travels to lungs through pulmonary artery trunk

88
Q

What is systemic heart failure?

A

occurs when the left side doesn’t fully eject blood which causes blood to back up into the left atrium & 4 pulmonary veins

89
Q

What happens as a result of systemic heart failure?

A

swelling of the alveolar capillaries which causes difficulty breathing

90
Q

What is the flow of blood through the heart in systemic circulation?

A

newly oxygenated blood from lungs enters the left atrium through 4 pulmonary veins ⤏ bicuspid valve ⤏ left ventricle ⤏ aortic semilunar valve ⤏ travels to body systems through the aorta

91
Q

What are arteries?

A

vessels that carry blood away from the heart to an organ, tissue, or body system

92
Q

What are veins?

A

vessels that return blood to the heart from an organ, tissue, or body region

93
Q

What are capillaries?

A

small vessels that may be microscopic; they allow blood to perfuse tissues; 3 types which are continuous, fenestrated, & sinusoidal

94
Q

What are continuous capillaries?

A

the endothelium has cells close together with tiny holes in between that only allow water, ions, salts, & sugars to “leak” through; can be found in skeletal muscle

95
Q

What are fenestrated capillaries?

A

the endothelium has medium-sized holes between cells; good for absorption, secretion, & filtration; can be found in glomerulus

96
Q

What are sinusoidal capillaries?

A

the endothelium has large holes between cells making blood cells able to pass into or out of; can be found in red bone marrow

97
Q

What is cardiac output (CO)?

A

calculated by heart rate • stroke volume; the amount of blood ejected by each ventricle per minute; typically 5250 mL/min or 5.25 L/min

98
Q

How is sympathetic stimulation an extrinsic factor on CO?

A

it increases heart rate & contraction force through cardiac nerves in the sympathetic division supplying the heart; occurs through fear, excitement, fever, exercise, & most pain

99
Q

What is epinephrine?

A

hormone from the adrenal glands that is released in severe sympathetic stimulation; its presence greatly increases cardiac output

100
Q

How do high blood calcium levels affect CO?

A

causes an increase in CO because it increases cross bridge formation in the cardiac muscle

101
Q

How does depression/grief affect CO?

A

decreases cardiac output

102
Q

How do cold/freezing temperatures affect CO?

A

cause a decrease in cardiac output as body tries (unsuccessfully) to divert blood to our “vital” organs

103
Q

How does acidic blood pH affect CO?

A

acidic blood pH occurs if the brain’s respiratory centers do not respond to this acidity (because of the presence of drugs like opioids); this pH decreases cardiac output which can lead to death

104
Q

How do high blood potassium levels affect CO?

A

alter the waves of depolarization in heart’s conduction system which decreases cardiac output

105
Q

How does the vagus nerve affect CO?

A

in severe abdominopelvic pain (kidney stones, appendicitis, etc.), the pain travels to the brain through the sensory part of vagus nerve & sends impulses back through vagus nerve to the heart causing a decrease in heart rate & stroke volume

106
Q

How is parasympathetic stimulation an extrinsic factor on CO?

A

it returns an elevated cardiac output to normal through cranial nerve X = vagus nerve

107
Q

What is the heart’s conduction system?

A

groups of neurons that coordinate the contraction of the heart; includes SA node, AV node, AV bundle of His, bundle branches, & Purkinje fibers

108
Q

What is the sinoatrial (SA) node?

A

a lump of nervous tissue in the right atrial wall slightly inferior to the opening of the superior vena cava

109
Q

What does the SA node do?

A

sets basic heart rate at approximately 75 bpm which can be adjusted as needed; causes atria to contract at the same time

110
Q

What is the atrioventricular (AV) node?

A

a lump of nervous tissue in the interatrial septum near the tricuspid valve; sends impulses to AV bundle of His

111
Q

What is the atrioventricular (AV) bundle of His?

A

strand of nervous tissue in the superior part of interventricular septum; branches to form the bundle branches

112
Q

What are the bundle branches?

A

strands of nervous tissue in the inferior portion of the interventricular septum; branches into Purkinje fibers

113
Q

What are the Purkinje fibers?

A

tiny branches that extend into lateral walls of the heart from apex upwards to ensure that contraction of the heart also occurs from apex upwards

114
Q

What are atrioventricular heart valves?

A

the bi & tri cuspid valves; separate atria & ventricles; made of soft flaps called cusps that grow out of the endocardium

115
Q

What are semilunar heart valves?

A

rigid valves that pop open due to force of blood as its ejected from ventricles; prevents leakage from “great vessels” (PAT & aorta) into ventricles

116
Q

What are chordae tendinae?

A

“heart strings” that anchor the cusps into the ventricles; they attach to papillary muscles

117
Q

What are papillary muscles?

A

cone-shaped extensions from the ventricle wall to prevent the valve’s cusps from extending into the atria which prevents leakage of blood from ventricle into atrium

118
Q

What layers protect the heart?

A

fibrous pericardium & serous pericardium (parietal/visceral)

119
Q

What is the fibrous pericardium?

A

tough, dense, fibrous connective tissue; protects heart & holds it in place

120
Q

What is the serous pericardium?

A

thin, soft, delicate serous membrane folded into parietal & visceral surfaces

121
Q

What is the parietal pericardium?

A

deeper surface; fuses to the inside of the fibrous pericardium

122
Q

What is the visceral pericardium?

A

also called epicardium; anchors directly to the heart wall; can also be categorized as a layer in the wall of the heart

123
Q

What is the pericardial cavity?

A

space separating the parietal & visceral pericardium; filled with 15 mL of pericardial fluid which serves as a lubricant to reduce friction

124
Q

What is the myocardium?

A

muscle layer made of cardiac muscle cells; each cell is branched & contains 1 central nucleus & they are interwoven to provide strength & prevent this layer from tearing

125
Q

What is the endocardium?

A

deepest layer lining the inside of the heart; made of endothelium which is a type of epithelium where the cells are flat & scale-like (squamous) to allow blood to zip through

A&P II Lecture (9 decks)

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