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1
Q

how to calculate size of population

A

size of 1st sample x size of 2nd sample/ no. recaptured

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2
Q

equation w 2 fractions?

A

(no. recaptured/size of 2nd sample) x (size of 1st sample/size of population)

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3
Q

assumptions made when using capture recapture to estimate population size

A

marking has no impact on mortality or predation
population is closed ( no migration or death )
population given time between 1st and 2nd sample for marked and unmarked individuals to fully mix

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4
Q

how to use eyepiece graticule and stage micrometer to calculate actual size

A

count number of eyepiece units in 1mm or 0.1mm on micrometer
convert epu to x um (need to do on each power)
1mm= 1000um

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5
Q

differential staining binds to what

A

different stains bind to different organelles
e.g. iodine makes nucleus yellow, makes starch grains blue black
in WBC: haematoxylin makes nucleus purple, eosin makes cytoplasm pink

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6
Q

what does copper sulphate in biuret bind to

A

N in peptide bond
forms complex

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7
Q

how does iodine test for starch work

A

I2 in KI
I3- fits in middle of amylose helix to cause colour change

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8
Q

how does emulsion test work

A

fats dissolve in ethanol
put in water
fat cannot remain dissolved in ethanol
forms droplets
white emulsion

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9
Q

purification of dna by precip

A

ice cols to decrease activity of DNase in cytoplasm
blend to increase SA and disrupt cell walls
detergent acts as emulsifier to attract phospholipids of membranes, disrupting plasma and nuclear membranes
protease in pineapple juice digests histones
add ethanol (insoluble in ethanol) so DNA forms white clumps

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10
Q

how to carry out root tip squash

A

5mm apical tip
4-5 drops HCl breaks down middle lamella in-between cell walls
heat 60C 2 mins
stain toluidine blue or aceto-orcein (stains chromatin)
squash 1 cell thick

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11
Q

how to dissect bony fish

A

cut away operculum
cut out 1 gill
put in water
cut filament and stain
view on microscopic slide

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12
Q

where is cartilage in lungs

A

c shaped rings trachea
bronchi plates
some larger bronchioles
WOULD PREVENT STRETCHING OF ALVEOLI

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13
Q

where is smooth muscle in lungs

A

trachea
bronchi
bronchioles
WOULD INCREASE DIFF DISTANCE IN ALVEOLI

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14
Q

where are elastic fibres in lungs

A

trachea
bronchi
bronchioles
alveoli

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15
Q

where are cilia in lungs

A

trachea
bronchi
bronchioles

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16
Q

where are goblet cells in lungs

A

trachea
bronchi

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17
Q

where is squamous epithelium in lungs

A

only alveoli

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18
Q

what happens in forced expiration

A

internal intercostals contract pulling ribs down hard
abdominal muscles contract forcing diaphragm up to force air out of the lungs more forcefully
requires energy as ATP from respiration

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19
Q

what happens in passive expiration

A

external intercostals relax
elastic fibre recoil
ribs down and in
diaphragm relaxes, moves up, dome shaped
thorax vol decreases pressure increases
air expelled as pressure > atm

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20
Q

artery components

A

tunica adevntitia
v thick tunic media
tunica intima
lumen

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21
Q

tunica adventitia arteries makeup

A

collagen (strength, withstand high pressure)
elastic fibres (stretch to prevent bursting, recoil to propel blood and even out surges in BP)

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22
Q

tunica media arteries makeup

A

elastic lamellae (stretch to prevent bursting, recoil to propel blood and even out surges in BP)
smooth muscle (maintains BP)

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23
Q

tunica intima arteries makeup

A

endothelium (smooth lining to decrease friction so increase blood flow, folded/corrugated so can expand when artery stretches)
connective tissue

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24
Q

capillary components

A

endothelial cells
basement membrane
pores in capillary wall
pinocytic vesicles

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25
Q

arteriole makeup compared to arteries

A

Tunica media contains less elastic tissue & more smooth muscle bc lower pressure

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26
Q

tunica media in veins descirption

A

poorly developed
less smooth muscle and elastic fibres in wall

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27
Q

tunica intima in veins description

A

endothelium
little connective tissue
sometimes indisctint from media

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28
Q

how is blood flow in capillaries increased

A

localised increases in metabolite eg CO2, H+ and a decrease in O2 cause vasodilation

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29
Q

how is blood flow in capillaries reduced

A

pre-capillary sphincter muscles contract, causing constriction to prevent or reduce flow to capillary network
bypass of blood in shunt vessel

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30
Q

how is vein blood flow maintained

A

heart pumping action
skeletal muscle contraction around walls increases BP
valves ensure pressure directs blood back to heart
inspiratory movements reduce pressure in thorax to create pressure grad, drawing blood to heart
expiratory pressure means pressure increases in veins outside heart, speeding flow to heart

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31
Q

characteristics of abnormal ECG traces

A

atrial fibrillation= no clear P wave
ventricular fibrillation= no clear QRS
bradycardia below 60bpm
tachycardia above 100bpm
ectopic= random extra beat

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32
Q

describe opportunistic sampling

A

based on prior knowledge
simple, safe, sample area with species
data will be biased

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33
Q

how to sample animal population

A

pitfall trap for small animals
mammal trap (mark recapture)
tree beating
sweep net
pooter
light trap

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34
Q

brief lobule makeup histology

A

central vein (blood flows from here to hepatic)
branch of hepatic artery and hepatic vein at edge
sinusoids
bile caniculis ot bile duct

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35
Q

list of hepatocytes functions

A

store glycogen (convert from glucose)
make bile
detoxification or hormones, alcohol, drugs (ethanol to acetate to acetyl coA)
deamination of amino acids (ketoacid to Krebs) (ammonia to ornithine cycle to urea)

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36
Q

how to test for anabolic steroids

A

gas chormatography

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37
Q

mouse pregnancy test

A

inject mouse w/ antigen hCG
mouse produce plasma cells with antibody
fuse w myeloma cell
hybridoma makes endless supply

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38
Q

adrenal gland structure

A

cortex: glomerulosa (aldosterone), fasciculata (cortisol), reticular (androgens)
medulla (chromaffin cells make adrenaline and noradrenaline)

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39
Q

pancreas histology

A

islets of langerhans (endocrine) w B cells (insulin), a cells (glucagon): alpha= larger, less numerous, edges
acing cells (exocrine)= majority, secrete digestive enzymes

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40
Q

what to stain electrophoresis gel with

A

ethidium bromide
visibel in UV light

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41
Q

if question asks about improving confidence, what to/not to talk about?

A

do NOT talk ab controlling variables
more repeats so identify anomalies (dilute effect) and calc mean
standard deviation and plot as error bars
stats tests eg students t test

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42
Q

why not measure all levels of biodiversity

A

time consuming

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43
Q

T reg cells function

A

dampening down of immune response
binds to T helper, T killer and plasma cells and induces apoptosis
prevents autoimmunity

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44
Q

T killer cells function

A

binds to infected cells to induce necrosis
inserts perforins
floods in hydrogen peroxide, nitric acid and hydrolytic enzymes e.g. lysozyme
digest and break down cell
cause cell lysis

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45
Q

describe allopatric speciation

A

different places
geographical separation (causes reproductive isolation bc no gene flow/ interbreeding)
random mutations in each population create new alleles
each pop may adapt to different habitats so different advantageous traits are selected for in natural selection
diverge
speciation

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46
Q

describe sympatric speciation

A

same place: no geographical barrier
random mutations cause phenotypic and behavioural changes which lead to reproductive isolation between pops (change in foraging/ courting behaviour) e..g change in chromosome number, preventing gamete fusion/meiosis/zygote viability or dev/infertile hybrid offspring)
no interbreeding/gene flow between pops until eventually cannot interbreed to produce fertile offspring

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47
Q

3 autoimmune diseases

A

lupus
rheumatoid arthritis
T1 diabetes

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48
Q

rheumatoid arthritis body parts affected/symptoms/treatment

A

joints eg knees, fingers, wrists
cartilage broken down so less smooth, painful movement, stiffened and inflammation
steroid injections, NSAIDs e.g. ibuprofen

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49
Q

lupus body parts affected, symptoms, treatment

A

joints, skin, kidney
headaches, high temp, sensitivity to UV light, butterfly rash on face
steroidal injections

50
Q

how to test for lupus

A

blood test
positive if presence of antibodies for cell surface antigens of connective tissue

51
Q

t1 diabetes body parts affected symptoms treatments

A

hyperglycaemia (high BGL so thicker blood, lower BP, less O2 to brain and coma)
beta cells in pancreas destroyed
faint, dizzy, sweating, pale
thirst, weight loss, fatigue
insulin injections, pancreas transplant, IPSCs

52
Q

what is muscle fatigue

A

a drop in the maximal force or power production in response to contractile activity
when muscle= repeatedly stimulated, there is a drop in tension

53
Q

causes of muscle fatigue

A

lack of ATP
lack of blood flow to muscles so lack of O2 so lack of ATP
NT not released from presynaptic MN so sarcolemma doesn’t depolarise
damage to muscle fibres by prolonged/intense muscle activity (micro tears in tissue)
accumulation of metabolic byproducts eg H+/lactic acid

54
Q

why does lack of ATP cause muscle fatigue

A

rigidity bc myosin heads don’t detach from actin so cross bridge not broken so filaments cannot slide
ATP needed for Na+/K+ pumps, exocytosis pumping Ca2+ back into sarcoplasmic reticulum too

55
Q

why does muscle fibre damage cause muscle fatigue

A

inflammatory response triggered so swelling and pain in affected muscles so fatigue

56
Q

why does accumulation of metabolic byproducts cause muscle fatigue

A

disrupts normal cellular processes within muscle fibres
H+ lowers pH, impairing muscle function bc denatures Ca2+ channels

57
Q

slow vs fast twitch muscle fibres:
blood supply
mitochondria
myoglobin
density of myofibrils
diameter
lactic acid resistance

A

S: good, more, more so bright red, low, small, low
F: poor, less so reliance on glycogen, less so paler, high large (thick bc more myosin), high

58
Q

types of vaccination

A

weakened live (mumps, polio, TB)
inactivated dead (influenza, whooping cough)
subunits (influenza B, haemophilus)
toxoids (tetanus, diphtheria)

59
Q

anterior vs posterior pituitary gland

A

A: produces and secretes hormones egTSH ACTH FSH LK
P: stores and secretes hormones produced by hypothalamus e.g. ADH, oxytocin, androgen

60
Q

carbon vs nitrogen cycle differences

A

FIXATION by p/s vs by N-fixing bacteria
CONVERSION CO2 to glucose by plant, NH3 to amino acids by plants
RELEASED by combustion/resp vs denitrification
TAKEN UP IN PLANT by stomata (CO2) vs AT in roots(NH3, NO2)
C has p/s, FF combustion
N has nitrifying and N fixing bacteria, symbiotic mutualism between legumes and Rhizobia

61
Q

C and N cycles similarities

A

inorganic gases in atmos
elements returned to atoms by m/o’s e.g. decomposers releasing CO2/N2
fixed to organic compounds (proteins, nucleic acids)
incorporated into producers and consumers (animals obtain by feeding)
decomposer m/o’s e,.g. bacteria/fungi
decomposition of organic macromolecules and release of inorganic molecules e.g. ammonia

62
Q

indirect stain stains what
example

A

stains background
india ink

63
Q

selective stain stains what
examples

A

particular part of specimen
malachite green, Congo red, crystal violet

64
Q

direct stain stains what
example

A

only stains specimen
methylene blue

65
Q

differential stain stains what
example

A

cell wall
grams stain

66
Q

advantages of using acfor scale

A

can be used with any species irrespective of size
quick to assess
doesn’t require distinguishing between individuals

67
Q

percentage uncertainty equation

A

2x absolute uncertainty
///////////
quantity measured
x100

68
Q

how to extract DNA

A

blend cells (increases SA exposed to reagents and disrupts cell walls)
add salt (causes DNA to precipitation in ethanol)
detergent (emulsifier attracts phospholipids, breaks down cell and nuclear membranes)
cold water (lowers TC for DNases)
protease (digest histones)
ice cold ethanol (precipitate)
strong acid treatment (hydrolyse DNA, release bases)

69
Q

describe heat shock treatment (to transfer vector into host cell)

A

alternate 0C to 42C with CaCl so walls and membranes more permeable so allow DNA in
+ve Ca2+ surround -ve DNA phosphate groups and phospholipid, reducing repulsion
increases number and size of pores so less carrier and channel proteins needed

70
Q

describe electroporation (to transfer vector into host cell)

A

high voltage pulse to cell
disrupts membrane by inducing pore formation
introduce recombinant DNA at same time as electric field so DNA taken up
used for plasmids into bacteria, fragments into eukaryotic cells

71
Q

describe electrofusion (to transfer vector into host cell)

A

tiny electric current to membrane on 2 different cells
fuses cell and nuclear membranes of 2 diff cells together to form a hybrid/polyploid cell containing DNA from both
(in plants: cell walls removed by cellulase, then electrofusion, then hormones to stem new cell wall growth)
used for GM plants, and SCNT

72
Q

describe transfection (transferring vector into host cell)

A

DNA packaged into bacteriophage (virus that infects bacterial cells ad transfers DNA into host bacterial cell)

73
Q

step by step how CO2 affects blood pH and oxygen unloading

A

CO2 diffuses into RBC down pCO2 grad
CO2 reacts with H2O, catalysed by carbonic anhydrase to form carbonic acid
acid dissociates into H+ and HCO3- ions
HCO3 diffuses into blood plasma
Cl- diffuse into RBC to maintain electrical balance (chloride shift)
H+ bind to Hb, forming haemoglobin acid, reducing affinity for O2, so O2 unloads
O2 dissociates from oxyhaemoglobin and diffuses out of RBC to respiring cells

74
Q

what part of brain is responsible for conscious thought and memory

A

cerebrum

75
Q

what does cerebral cortex control

A

higher brain functions e.g.
conscious thought, voluntary actions, emotional responses
intelligence e.g. reasoning, learning
speech and visual processing
can override some reflexes

76
Q

hypothalamus funciton

A

regulates autonomic NS
controls most of body homeostatic mechanisms ( osmoreg, thermoreg, digestive activity (peristalsis, gut secretions), endocrine glands via pituitary (thyroid, adrenal cortex), melatonin release for sleep

77
Q

medulla oblongata functions

A

controls action of non-skeletal muscles (autonomic control)
respiratory centre (breathing rate and depth)
cardiac centre (heart rate)
vasomotor centre (BP and circulation)

78
Q

what does cerebellum coordinate

A

balance
learned sequences of movement (unconscious functions)

79
Q

cerebral cortex is divided into what

A

sensory, association and motor areas

80
Q

cerebrum lobes

A

frontal lobe (movement)
occipital lobe (visual association)
parietal lobe (touch)
temporal lobe (auditory association)

81
Q

pathways of hormones from anterior pituitary

A

TRH stims TSH release, travels to thyroid to secrete thyroxine
CRH stim ACTH release, travels to adrenal cortex, secretes cortisol

82
Q

anterior vs posterior lobe of pituitary gland

A

A: no direct nerve connection w hypothalamus, P does
A: connected via portal blood system, P has none
A: releases TSH and ACTH into blood when a releasing factor from portal system binds, P: no releasing factors: AP from hypothalamus triggers release of ADH

83
Q

describe how lengths of bands/zones change when muscle contracts

A

sarcomere shorter
I band decreases
H zone disappears
A band same
Z lines closer

84
Q

M line

A

proteins which anchor myosin filaments

85
Q

A band

A

overlap of actin and myosin

86
Q

H zonE

A

myosin only

87
Q

I band

A

actin only

88
Q

Z line

A

boundaries between sarcomeres (between actin filaments)

89
Q

step by step sliding filament mechanism

A

Ca2+ bind to troponin (changes shape)
troponin and tropomyosin move away from myosin binding site
myosin heads (w ADP and Pi) bind to actin AS
conformational change in myosin head, tilts from 90 to 45, forcing actin to move in relation to myosin (ADP and Pi released)
ATP binds to myosin head
myosin head hydrolyses ATP to ADP and Pi, providing energy to release myosin head from actin
returns to original 90 position
binds further along actin filament
repeats

90
Q

what type of muscle has numerous nuclei

A

skeletal (voluntary)

91
Q

what type of muscle is spindle shaped

A

smooth

92
Q

what type of muscle makes up sarcomeres

A

skeletal

93
Q

what type of muscle has intercalated discs

A

cardiac

94
Q

what muscle looks striated under miscroscope

A

cardiac and skeletal

95
Q

skeletal muscle innervation

A

somatic NS (reflexes)

96
Q

cardiac muscle innervation

A

myogenic but autonomic NS and hormones control rate

97
Q

involuntary muscle innervation

A

autonomic NS (sympathetic and parasympathetic)

98
Q

speed at which muscle types fatigue

A

skeletal quickly
cardiac doesn’t
smooth slowly

99
Q

where is smooth muscle

A

intestine walls for peristalsis
uterus walls
arterioles to regulate BP and bloos distribution
reflexes eg iris of eye

100
Q

simple vs facilitated diffusion graph shapes

A
101
Q

AT vs FD vs SD graph shapes

A
102
Q

homeotic genes

A

group of genes involved in controlling dev of body plan

103
Q

homeobox genes/ sequence

A

180 base pairs
code for 60 aa homeodomain

104
Q

homeodomain

A

60 aa sequence
coded for by homeobox genes
act as transcription factors to activate or repress certain genes

105
Q

hox genes

A

subset of homeobox genes only found in animals

106
Q

RQ carbohydrates

A

1

107
Q

RQ proteins

A

0.9

108
Q

RQ lipids

A

0.7-0.8

109
Q

RQ when some anaerobic
only anaerobic

A

> 1
infinity

110
Q

step by step insulin secretion from beta cell

A

cell membrane has K+ and Ca2+ ion channels. the K+ ones are normally open so K+ flow out
when BGL too high, glucose moves into beta cell by FD
glucose is metabolised to produce ATP, which is used to close the K+ channels
accumulation of K+ ions alter PD across cell membrane: inside becomes less -ve
change in PD opens Ca2+ channels; Ca2+ cause vesicles of insulin to fuse w cell membrane, releasing insulin by exocytosis

111
Q

tidal volume definition

A

volume of air that flows in & out of lungs with each breath during quiet breathing (usually measured at rest)

111
Q

tidal volume

A

around 0.5dm3 (but only 0.35dm3)

112
Q

vital capacity definition

A

maximum volume of air that can be moved by the lungs in one breath (strongest possible exhalation followed by strongest possible inhalation)

113
Q

normal vital capacity

A

2.5-5dm3

114
Q

inspiratory reserve volume definition

A

maximum volume of air that can be inspired in excess of the tidal volume

115
Q

expiratory reserve volume definition

A

maximum volume of air that can be expired in excess of the tidal volume

116
Q

residual volume definition

A

volume of air left in the lungs after maximum forced expiration

117
Q

normal residual volume

A

1.5dm3

118
Q

total lung capacity definition

A

total volume of air in lungs after maximum inhalation (total volume of air that lungs can hold)

119
Q

types of transcriptional level regulation

A

regulation of gene expression in prokaryotes (lac operon)
regulation of gene expression (chromatin remodelling, histone modification, transcription factors)

120
Q

in bacterial dna where are genes controlling related functions located

A

together
form operons

121
Q
A

biology (28 decks)

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