Memory

Question 1

CCD- coding-
Baddley (1996)?

Answer 1

Four groups:
- acoustically similar,
- acoustically dissimilar
- semantically similar
- e anti ally dissimilar
Used STM, were asked to recall original list in correct order. Did worst with acoustically similar words.
After 20 mins, 20 mins, worst recall was semantically similar words.

Question 2

CCD- duration- STM-
Peterson (1959)

Answer 2

24 students, 8 trials, given consonant syllables. Told to count back from a three digit number.
After 3s recall was 80%, after 18 seconds recall was 3%

Question 3

CCD- duration- LTM-
Bahrick (1975)

Answer 3

392 American participants, aged 17-74. Used year books, tested in various ways including: trying to name all of heir classmates, and a photo recognition test of 50 photos (some from their yearbook).
Within 15 years graduation=
90% in PR
60% in FR
After 48 years=
70% in PR
30% in FR

Question 4

CCD- capacity- DS-
Jacobs (1887)

Answer 4

Started with four digits, pps had to repeat in same order, one was added every time until pps could no longer recall.
Mean for digits was 9.3.
Mean for letters was 7.3

Question 5

CCD- capacity- SoM + C-
Miller (1956)

Answer 5

Noted things come in 7s, so thought span was 7 plus/minus 2.
Concluded people can recall five words as easy as five letters (=chunking)

Question 6

CCD- capacity- e-
Bopp and Verhaeghen (2005)

Answer 6

Recreated Jacobs study, and found the same results

Question 7

CCD- capacity- e-
Cowan (2001)

Answer 7

Found STM capacity is 4+/-1 not 7+/-2

Question 8

CCD- duration- e-
Shepherd (1967)

Answer 8

Bahricks study, recreated with meaningless pictures, had lower recall

Question 9

MSM-
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968, 1971)

Answer 9

Created the multis-tore model of memory

Question 10

MSM-
Baddley (1966)

Answer 10

Mic up similar sounding words in STM.
Mix up similar meaning words in LTM.

Question 11

MSM-
Shallice and Warrington (1970)

Answer 11

KF, had amnesia. Had poor recall when words were read out to him, but recall was improved when eh read the words out himself.

Question 12

MSM-
Craik and Watkins (1973)

Answer 12

Elaborative rehearsal (link new memories to current knowledge) is needed not maintenance rehearsal.

Question 13

WMM-
Baddley and Hitch (1974)

Answer 13

Created the working memory model

Question 14

WMM-
Shallice and Warrington (1970)

Answer 14

KF, amnesia, phonological loop was damaged, but visuospatial sketchpad was oaky

Question 15

WMM-
Baddley (1975) (DT)

Answer 15

Duel task performance.
Found participants preformed better with one visual one verbal task, performance significantly decreased when both were either visual or verbal.

Question 16

WMM-
Baddley (2003) (CE)

Answer 16

‘The Central executive is the most important but the least understood part of working memory’. Psychologist believe it should be split int sub components

Question 17

Explanations of forgetting- interference-
McGeoch and McDonald (1931)?

Answer 17

Studied retroactive interference. Pps learned a list of 10 words with 100% accuracy. They then learned a new list. (6 groups):
- synonyms
- antonyms
- unrelated
- consonant syllables
- three digit number
- no new list
Interference was stronger was lists were similar

Question 18

Explanations of forgetting- interference-
Baddley and Hitch (1977)?

Answer 18

Asked rugby players to recall the names of the teams they had played over one season. Players who had the most games played had the worst recall.

Question 19

Explanations of forgetting- interference-
Tulsi g and Psotka (1971)?

Answer 19

Gave pps a list of words sorted into categories. Recall averaged at 70%. This decreased as r they learned more lists. When give a cue to the list, recall raised again to 70%.

Question 20

Explanations of forgetting- interference-
Coenen and Van Luijtelaat (1997)?

Answer 20

Gave a list of words and asked pps to recall. One group learned the list under the influence of diazepam, compared with. A placebo control group, the recall was worse when the pps were on the drug. In the second group, pps learned the list before taking the drug, later recall was actually better than the placebo. The drug helped recall of information learned beforehand.

Question 21

Explanations of forgetting- interference-
Wixteed (2004)?

Answer 21

Suggested the frug prevented new information from reaching parts of the brain involved in processing memories, so RI cannot occur.

Question 22

Explanations of forgetting- retrieval failure- CDF-
Godden and Baddley (1975)

Answer 22

Four conditions:
- learn on land, recall on land
- learn on land, recall underwater
- recall underwater, recall on land
- recall underwater, recall underwater
Accuracy was 40% lower in non-matching conditions.

Question 23

Explanations of forgetting- retrieval failure- SDF-
Carter and Cassaday (1998)

Answer 23

Four conditions:
- learn on drug, recall on drug
- learn on drug, recall not on drug
- learn not on drug, recall on drug
- learn not on drug, recall not on drug
When there was a mismatch between the two conditions, performance was significantly worse.

Question 24

Explanations of forgetting- retrieval failure- CDF-
Godden and Baddley (1980)

Answer 24

Replicated their study (underwater), but used recognition instead of recall. There was no context dependant forgetting, performance was the same in all four conditions .

Question 25

Explanations of forgetting- retrieval failure-
Baddley

Answer 25

Suggested it was worth paying attention to cues, when we have trouble remembering something, it is probably worth making the effort to recall the environment in which we learned it first.

Question 26

ET- misleading information- LQ-
Loftus and Palmer (1974)?

Answer 26

Showed 45 pps, videos of car crashes. ‘About how fast were the cars going when they ____ each other?’. (Hit, contacted, bumped, collided and smashed)
Contacted- 31.8 mph, smashed- 40.5 mph,

Question 27

ET- misleading information- P-ED-
Gabbert (2003)?

Answer 27

Studied pps in pairs, each watched a video of the same crime from different points of view.
Each pps can see different parts of the crime that the other cannot.
Found 71% of the pps mistakenly recalled aspects of the event that they did not see in the video.

Question 28

ET- misleading information-
Loftus (1975)

Answer 28

Believes police officers need to be more careful when questioning eyewitnesses. Psychologists are sometimes asked to be expert eyewitnesses, in court witnesses, and to explain EWTs.

Question 29

ET- misleading information-
Sutherland and Hayne (2001)

Answer 29

Showed pps a video clip, when pps were later asking questions they remembered more central information of the event than the peripheral ones. Presuming that this is due to focus.

Question 30

ET- misleading information-
Skagerberg and Wright (2008)

Answer 30

Showed pps two sets of the same video clip (the muggers hair was brown in one and blonde in the other). They discusses the video in pairs, each having seen different versions. They merged their two points of views.

Question 31

ET- anxiety- N-
Johnson and Scott (1976)?

Answer 31

Lab study. Occurred within a waiting room. Two conditions (high anxiety vs low anxiety)
Low-anxiety: overheard a casual conversation, and saw a man walk out carrying a pen with grease on his hands.
High-anxiety: heated argument, accompanied by the sound of breaking glass,he walked our holding a knife covered in blood.
Asked to pick out the man from a set of 50 photos. 49% of LA could identify him. 33% in HA could identify him. (Tunnel theory)

Question 32

ET- anxiety- P-
Yuille and Cutshall (1986)?

Answer 32

Real life. Shop owner shot a thief dead. There were 21 witnesses- 13 took part in the study. They wer interviewed 4-5 months after the incident, they were compared with the original police interviews. They were also asked how stressed they were.
They had very accurate accounts, there was little changed in the amount of accuracy after 5 months. Ones who reported higher levels of stress were the most accurate. (88% in more stressed group, 75% in less stressed group.)

Question 33

ET- anxiety-
Deffenbacher (1983)

Answer 33

Used Yerkes-Dodson law to explain the findings

Question 34

ET- anxiety-
Pickel (1998)

Answer 34

Used scissors, handgun, wallet, and a raw chicken as the hand held items in a hairdressers video. Eyewitness accuracy was significantly poorer in the high unusualness condition.

Question 35

ET- anxiety-
Valentine and Mesout (2009)

Answer 35

Supports research on weapon focus, finding negative effects on recall. Used heart rate to divide participants into high and low anxiety groups. Anxiety clearly distrusted the participants ability to recall details about the actor in the London dungeon labyrinth.

Question 36

ET- anxiety-
Christianson and hubinette (1993)

Answer 36

Interviewed 58 eyewitnesses of a bank robbery. Some were directly involved, and others were indirectly involved. Recall was 75% accurate across all participants, but people who were more directly involved had better recall.

Question 37

Cognitive interview-
Fisher and Geiselman (1992)?

Answer 37

Created the cognitive interview

Question 38

Cognitive interview-
Fisher (1987)?

Answer 38

He created the enhanced cognitive interview

Question 39

Cognitive interview-
Kohnken (1999)

Answer 39

Meta analysis of 55 studies, found CI produced a 41% increase in the accuracy of information than with a standard police interview. Only 4 showed no difference.

Question 40

Cognitive interview-
Milne and Bull (2002)

Answer 40

All four techniques used alone produced more information than the standard police interview. Found using ‘report everything’ and ‘reinstate the context’ produced better recall than any other element of combination.

Question 41

Cognitive interview-
Kebbell and Wagstaff (1997)

Answer 41

More time is needed to establish rapport with a witness and allow them to relax. CI requires special training, and many forces do not have the resources.