Research And Program Evaluation

Question 1

The most valuable type of research is

a. always conducted using a factor analysis.
b. conducted using the chi-square.
c. the experiment, used to discover cause-and-effect relationships.
d. thequasi-experiment.

Answer 1

The experiment, used to discover cause-and-effect relationships.

Question 2

Experiments emphasize parsimony, which means

a. interpreting the results in the simplest way.
b. interpreting the results in the most complex manner.
c. interpreting the results using a correlation coefficient.
d. interpreting the results using a clinical interview.

Answer 2

Interpreting the results in the simplest way.

Parsimonious literally means a tendency to be miserly and not overspend. A parsimonious individual is said to be overly economical and stingy. In research, we strive for parsimony in the sense that the easiest and less-complex explanation is said to be the best; an economical description if you will.

Question 3

Occam’s Razor suggests that experimenters

a. interpret the results in the simplest manner.
b. interpret the results in the most complex manner. c. interpret the results using a correlation coefficient. d. interpret the results using a clinical interview.

Answer 3

Interpret the results in the simplest manner.

A word to the wise: Exams often refer to parsimony as Occam’s Razor, the principle of economy, or Lloyd Morgan’s 1894 Canon (canon in this sense means “law”). Conway Lloyd Morgan was an English psychologist/physiologist, while William of Occam was a fourteenth-century philosopher and theologian.

Question 4

A counselor educator is running an experiment to test a new form of counseling. Unbeknownst to the experimenter one of the clients in the study is secretly seeing a gestalt therapist. This experiment

a. is parsimonious.
b. is an example of Occam’s Razor.
c. is confounded/flawed.
d. is valid and will most likely help the field of counseling.

Answer 4

Is confounded/flawed.

Question 5

Nondirective is to person-centered as

a. psychological testing is to counseling.
b. confounding is to experimenting.
c. appraisal is to research.
d. parsimony is to Occam’s Razor.

Answer 5

Parsimony is to Occam’s Razor.

Question 6

An experiment is said to be confounded when

a. undesirable variables are not kept out of the experiment.
b. undesirable variables are kept out of the experiment.
c. basic research is used in place of applied research.
d. the sample is random.

Answer 6

Undesirable variables are not kept out of the experiment.

Confounding is said to occur when an undesirable variable which is not controlled by the researcher is introduced in the experiment. Hint: Your exam could refer to this as a contaminating variable.

Question 7

In experimental terminology IV stands for ________ and DV stands for ________.

a. independent variable; dependent variable
b. dependent variable; independent variable
c. individual variable; dependent variable
d. independent variable; designer variable

Answer 7

Independent variable; dependent variable

Question 8

A professor of counselor education hypothesized that biofeedback training could reduce anxiety and improve the average score on written board exams. If this professor decides to conduct a formal experiment the IV will be the ________, and the DV will be the ________.

a. professor; anxiety level
b. anxiety level; board exam score
c. biofeedback; board exam score
d. board exam score; biofeedback

Answer 8

Biofeedback; board exam score

Question 9

Experimenters should always abide by a code of ethics. The variable you manipulate/control in an experiment is the

a. DV.
b. dependent variable.
c. the variable you will measure to determine the outcome.
d. IV or independent variable.

Answer 9

IV or independent variable.

Question 10

In order for the professor of counselor education (see question 708) to conduct an experiment regarding his hypothesis he will need a(n) ________ and a(n) ________.

a. biofeedback group; systematic desensitization group
b. control group; systematic desensitization group
c. control group; experimental group
d. control group with at least 60 subjects; experimental group
with at least 60 subjects

Answer 10

Control group; experimental group

Question 11

In order for the professor of counselor education to conduct the experiment suggested in question 708 the experimental group would need to receive

a. the manipulated IV.
b. the biofeedback training.
c. a and b.
d. the organismic IV.

Answer 11

A and B.

The experimental group receives the IV, which in this case is the biofeedback training. An organismic variable is one the researcher cannot control yet exists, such as height, weight, or gender. To determine whether an organismic IV exists you simply ask yourself if there is an experimental variable being examined which you cannot manipulate. In most cases, when you are confronted with IV/DV identification questions, the IV will be of the “manipulated variety.”

Question 12

Hypothesis testing is most closely related to the work of

a. Robert Hoppock.
b. Sigmund Freud.
c. Lloyd Morgan.
d. R. A. Fisher.

Answer 12

R. A. Fisher.

Hypothesis testing was pioneered by R. A. Fisher. A hypothesis is a hunch or an educated guess which can be tested utilizing the experimental model.

Question 13

The null hypothesis suggests that there will not be a significant difference between the experimental group which received the IV and the control group which did not. Thus, if the experiment in question 708 was conducted, the null hypothesis would suggest that

a. all students receiving biofeedback training would score equally well on the board exam.
b. systematic desensitization might work better than biofeedback.
c. biofeedback will not improve the board exam scores.
d. meta-analysis is required.

Answer 13

Biofeedback will not improve the board exam scores.

Question 14

The hunch is known as the experimental or alternative hypothesis. The experimental hypothesis suggests that a difference will be evident between the control group and the experimental group (i.e., the group receiving the IV). Thus, if the experiment in question 708 were conducted, the experimental hypothesis would suggest that

a. the biofeedback would raise board scores.
b. the control group will score better on the board exam.
c. there will be no difference between the experimental and
the control groups.
d. the experiment has been confounded.

Answer 14

The biofeedback would raise board scores.

An alternative hypothesis—which may be called the “affirmative hypothesis” on your exam—asserts that the IV has indeed caused a change.

Question 15

From a purely statistical standpoint, in order to compare a control group (which does not receive the IV or experimental manipulation) to the experimental group the researcher will need

a. a correlation coefficient
b. only descriptive statistics.
c. percentile rank.
d. a test of significance.

Answer 15

A test of significance.

Question 16

When you see the letter P in relation to a test of significance it
means

a. portion.
b. population parameter.
c. probability.
d. the researcher is using an ethnographic qualitative
approach.

Answer 16

Probability.

Question 17

In the social sciences the accepted probability level is usually

a. .05 or less.
b. 1.0 or higher.
c. .0001 or less.
d. .05 or higher.

Answer 17

.05 or less.

The two most popular levels of significance are .05 and .01.

Question 18

P = .05 really means that

a. five subjects were not included in the study.
b. there is only a 5% chance that the difference between the control group and the experimental groups is due to chance
factors.
c. the level of significance is .01.
d. no level of significance has been set.

Answer 18

There is only a 5% chance that the difference between the control group and the experimental groups is due to chance
factors.

Question 19

P = .05 really means that

a. differences truly exist; the experimenter will obtain the same results 95 times out of 100.
b. differences truly exist; the experimenter will obtain the same results 99 times out of 100.
c. there is a 95% error factor.
d. there is a 10% error factor.

Answer 19

Differences truly exist; the experimenter will obtain the same results 95 times out of 100.

Question 20

The study that would best rule out chance factors would have a significance level of P =

a. .05.
b. .01.
c. .001.
d. .08.

Answer 20

.001.

The smaller the value for P the more stringent the level of significance. Here, the .001 level is the most stringent level listed, indicating that there is only one chance in 1,000 that the results are due to chance, versus one in 20 for .05, and one in 100 for .01. In plain, everyday English it is easier to get significant results using .08, .05, or .01, than it is using .001.

Question 21

Type I and Type II errors are called ________ and ________
respectively.

a. beta;alpha
b. .01;.05
c. a and b
d. alpha;beta

Answer 21

Alpha;beta

If it sounds a little like Greek, that’s because it is. Alpha and beta are the first and second letters of the Greek alphabet. A Type I (alpha error) occurs when a researcher rejects the null hypothesis when it is true; and a Type II error (beta error) occurs when you accept null when it is false.

Question 22

A Type I error occurs when

a. you have a beta error.
b. you accept null when it is false.
c. you reject null when it is true.
d. you fail to use a test of significance.

Answer 22

You reject null when it is true.

Question 23

A Type II error

a. is also called a beta error.
b. means you reject null when it is applicable. c. means you accept null when it is false.
d. a and c.

Answer 23

A and C.

Question 24

Assume the experiment in question 708 is conducted. The results indicate that the biofeedback helped raise written board exam scores but in reality this is not the case. The researcher has made a

a. Type I error.
b. Type II error.
c. beta error.
d. b and c.

Answer 24

Type I error.

In this case null would indicate that biofeedback did not raise board exam scores. This question tells you that the experimental results revealed that biofeedback did raise board scores, so you will reject the null hypothesis.

Question 25

A counselor educator decides to increase the sample size in her experiment. This will

a. confound the experiment in nearly every case.
b. raise the probability of Type I and Type II errors.
c. have virtually no impact on Type I and Type II errors.
d. reduce Type I and Type II errors.

Answer 25

Reduce Type I and Type II errors.

Raising the size of a sample helps to lower the risk of chance/ error factors. Simply put: Differences revealed via large samples are more likely to be genuine than differences revealed using a small sample size.

Question 26

If a researcher changes the significance level from .05 to .001, then

a. alpha and beta errors will increase.
b. alpha errors increase but beta errors decrease.
c. alpha errors decrease; however, beta errors increase.
d. this will have no impact on Type I and Type II errors.

Answer 26

Alpha errors decrease; however, beta errors increase.

Question 27

A counselor believes that clients who receive assertiveness training will ask more questions in counseling classes. An experimental group receives assertiveness training while a control group does not. In order to test for significant differences
between the groups the counselor should utilize
a. the student’s t test.
b. a correlation coefficient.
c. a survey.
d. an analysis of variance (ANOVA).

Answer 27

The student’s t test.

When comparing two sample groups the t test, which is a simplistic form of the analysis of variance, is utilized. The t test is used to ascertain whether two sample means are significantly different.

Question 28

The researcher in question 727 now attempts a more complex experiment. One group receives no assertiveness training, a second group receives four assertiveness training sessions, and a third receives six sessions. The statistic of choice would be the

a. mean.
b. t test.
c. two-way ANOVA.
d. ANOVA.

Answer 28

ANOVA.

Since the simple ANOVA or one-way analysis of variance is used when there is more than one level of a single IV, which in this case is the assertiveness training.

Question 29

If the researcher in the previous question utilized two IVs then the statistic of choice would be the

a. median.
b. t test.
c. two-way ANOVA or MANOVA.
d. ANOVA.

Answer 29

Two-way ANOVA or MANOVA.

Two IVs requires a two-way ANOVA, three IVs, a three-way ANOVA, etc.

Question 30

To complete a t test you would consult a tabled value of t. In order to see if significant differences exist in an ANOVA you would consult

a. the mode.
b. a table for t values.
c. a table for F values.
d. thechi-square.

Answer 30

A table for F values.

Question 31

Which level of significance would best rule out chance factors?

a. .05
b. .01
c. .2
d. .001

Answer 31

.001

Question 32

When a researcher uses correlation, then there is no direct manipulation of the IV. A researcher might ask, for example, how IQ correlates with the incidence of panic disorder. Again, nothing is manipulated; just measured. In cases such as this a correlation coefficient will reveal

a. the relationship between IQ and panic disorder.
b. the probability that a significant difference exists.
c. an F test.
d. percentile rank.

Answer 32

The relationship between IQ and panic disorder.

Question 33

If data indicate that students who study a lot get very high scores on state counselor licensing exams, then the correlation between study time and LPC exam scores would be

a. positive.
b. negative.
c. 0.00.
d. impossible to ascertain.

Answer 33

Positive

Question 34

Which of the following would most likely yield a perfect correlation of 1.00?

a. IQ and salary.
b. ICD diagnosis and salary.
c. Length in inches and length in centimeters.
d. Height and weight

Answer 34

Length in inches and length in centimeters.

Question 35

A good guess would be that if you would correlate the length of CACREP graduates’ baby toes with their CPCE scores the result would be

a. close to 0.00.
b. close to a perfect 1.00.
c. close to a perfect negative correlation of -1.00.
d. be about +.70

Answer 35

Close to 0.00.

There is an absence of association here because as one variable changes the other variable varies randomly. The variation of one variable is most likely totally unrelated to the variation of the
other.

Question 36

Dr. X discovered that the correlation between therapists who hold NCC status and therapists who practice systematic desensitization is .90. A student who perused Dr. X’s research told his fellow students that Dr. X had discovered that attaining NCC status causes therapists to become behaviorally oriented.
The student is incorrect because

a. systematic desensitization is clearly not a behavioral strategy.
b. this can only be determined via a histogram.
c. the study suffers from longitudinal and maturational
effects.
d. correlation does not imply causal.

Answer 36

Correlation does not imply causal.

Correlation does not mean causal! Correlational research is quasi-experimental, and hence, it does not yield cause–effect data.

Question 37

Behaviorists often utilize N = 1, which is called intensive experimental design. The first step in this approach would be to

a. consult a random number table.
b. decide on a nonparametric statistical test.
c. take a baseline measure.
d. compute the range.

Answer 37

Compute the range.

Question 38

In a new study the clients do not know whether they are receiving an experimental treatment for depression or whether they are simply part of the control group. This is, nevertheless, known to the researcher. Thus, this is a

a. double-blind study.
b. single-blind study.
c. baseline for an intensive N = 1 design.
d. participant observer model.

Answer 38

Single-blind study.

In the single-blind study the subject would not know whether he or she is a member of the control group or the experimental group. This strategy helps eliminate “demand characteristics” which are cues or features of a study which suggest a desired outcome.

Question 39

A large study at a major university gave an experimental group of clients a new type of therapy that was intended to ameliorate test anxiety. The control group did not receive the new therapy. Neither the clients nor the researchers knew which students received the new treatment. This was a

a. double-blind study.
b. single-blind study.
c. typical AB design.
d. case of correlational research.

Answer 39

Double-blind study.

Question 40

Experimental is to cause and effect as correlational is to

a. blind study.
b. double-blind study.
c. N = 1 design.
d. degree of relationship.

Answer 40

Degree of relationship.

Question 41

In a normal curve the mean, the median, and the mode all fall precisely in the middle of the curve. From a graphical standpoint the so-called normal or Gaussian curve (named after the astronomer/mathematician K. F. Gauss) looks like

a. a symmetrical bell.
b. the top half of a bowling ball.
c. the top half of a hot dog.
d. a mountain which is leaning toward the left.

Answer 41

A symmetrical bell.

Question 42

The most common measures of central tendency are the mean, the median, and the mode. The mode is

a. the most frequently occurring score and the least-important measure of central tendency.
b. always 10% less than the mean.
c. the arithmetic average.
d. the middle score in the distribution of scores.

Answer 42

The most frequently occurring score and the least-important measure of central tendency.

Question 43

A bimodal distribution has two modes (i.e., most frequently
occurring scores). Graphically, this looks roughly like

a. a symmetrical bell-shaped curve.
b. a camel’s back with two humps.
c. the top half of a bowling ball.
d. a mountain which is leaning toward the left.

Answer 43

A camel’s back with two humps.

Question 44

In a basic curve or so-called frequency polygon the point of maximum concentration is the

a. mean.
b. median.
c. mode.
d. range.

Answer 44

Mode.

Question 45

The most useful measure of central tendency is the

a. mean, often abbreviated by an X with a bar over it.
b. median, often abbreviated by Md. or Mdn.
c. mode, often abbreviated by Mo.
d. point of maximum concentration.

Answer 45

Mean, often abbreviated by an X with a bar over it.

Question 46

In a career counseling session an electrical engineer mentions three jobs he has held. The first paid $10 per hour, the second paid $30 per hour, and the third paid a higher rate of $50 per hour. The counselor responds that the client is averaging $30 per hour. The counselor is using

a. a Pearson Product-Moment Correlation coefficient.
b. a factorial design.
c. the harmonic mean.
d. the mean.

Answer 46

The mean.

Question 47

From a mathematical standpoint, the mean is merely the sum of the scores divided by the number of scores. The mean is misleading when

a. the distribution is skewed.
b. the distribution has no extreme scores.
c. there are extreme scores.
d. a and c.

Answer 47

A and C.

Question 48

When a distribution of scores is not distributed normally,
statisticians call it

a. Gauss’s curve.
b. a symmetrical bell-shaped curve.
c. a skewed distribution.
d. an invalid distribution.

Answer 48

A skewed distribution.

Question 49

The median is

a. the middle score when the data are arranged from highest to lowest.
b. the arithmetic average.
c. the most-frequent value obtained.
d. never more useful than the mean.

Answer 49

The middle score when the data are arranged from highest to lowest.

Question 50

In a new experiment, a counselor educator wants to ferret out the effects of more than one IV. She will use a ________ design.

a. Pearson product-Momentr.
b. Spearman rank order rho
c. factorial
d. Solomon four-group

Answer 50

Factorial

Question 51

Regardless of the shape, the ________ will always be the high point when a distribution is displayed graphically.

a. degrees of freedom (df)
b. mean
c. median
d. mode

Answer 51

Mode.

The mode will be highest because it is the point where the most frequently occurring score falls.

Question 52

A group of first-semester graduate students in counseling took an experimental counseling exam that was much more difficult than the NCE. All of the students scored very low. A distribution of their scores would

a. always be a bimodal distribution.
b. be positively skewed.
c. be negatively skewed.
d. produce a curve with a long tail to the left side of the graph.

Answer 52

Be positively skewed.

Try to imagine this in your mind or roughly graph it on scratch paper. Most of the scores would fall on the left or the low side of the distribution. Graphically then, the “tail” of the distribution would point to the right or the positive side. Memory device: The tail indicates whether the distribution is positively or negatively skewed

Question 53

Nine of the world’s finest counselor educators are given an elementary exam on counseling theory. Needless to say, all of them scored extremely high. The distribution of scores would most likely be

a. a bell-shaped curve.
b. positively skewed.
c. negatively skewed.
d. indicative that more information would be necessary.

Answer 53

Negatively skewed.

Since high scores pack the right side of the distribution, this gives you a long tail that points to the left, which indicates a negative skew. The tail points you in the direction of the correct answer!

Question 54

Billy received an 82 on his college math final. This is Billy’s raw score on the test. A raw score simply refers to the number of items correctly answered. A raw score is expressed in the units by which it was originally obtained. The raw score is not altered mathematically. Billy’s raw score indicates that

a. he is roughly a B student.
b. he answered 82% correctly.
c. his percentile rank is 82.
d. more information is obviously necessary.

Answer 54

More information is obviously necessary.

Raw data is like a raw piece of meat; it is uncooked and nothing has been done to it.

Question 55

A distribution with class intervals can be graphically displayed via a bar graph also called a

a. histogram.
b. sociogram.
c. genogram.
d. genus.

Answer 55

Histogram.

Question 56

When a horizontal line is drawn under a frequency distribution
it is known as

a. mesokurtic.
b. the y axis.
c. the ordinate.
d. the x axis.

Answer 56

The x axis.

Question 57

The x axis is used to plot the IV scores. The x axis could also be called the _______ on your exam.

a. y axis
b. abscissa
c. DV
d. vertical axis

Answer 57

Abscissa

Question 58

The y axis is used to plot the frequency of the DVs. The y axis could also be called the ______ on your exam.

a. ordinate
b. abscissa
c. IV
d. horizontal axis

Answer 58

Ordinate

Question 59

If a distribution is bimodal, then there is a good chance that

a. the curve will be normal.
b. the curve will be shaped like a symmetrical bell.
c. the researcher is working with two distinct populations.
d. the research is useless in the field of counseling.

Answer 59

The researcher is working with two distinct populations.

Question 60

If an experiment can be replicated by others with almost identical findings, then the experiment is

a. impacted by the observer effect.
b. said to be a naturalistic observation.
c. the result of ethological observation.
d. said to be reliable.

Answer 60

Said to be reliable.

Question 61

The range is a measure of variance and usually is calculated by determining the difference between the highest and the lowest score. Thus, on a test where the top score was a 93 and the lowest score was a 33 out of 100, the range would be

a. 61.
b. 77.
c. 59.
d. more information is necessary.

Answer 61

61

Question 62

A sociogram is to a counseling group as a scattergram is to

a. the normal curve.
b. the range.
c. a correlation coefficient.
d. the John Henry effect.

Answer 62

A correlation coefficient.

A scattergram—also known as a scatterplot—is a pictorial diagram or graph of two variables being correlated.

Question 63

A counselor educator is teaching two separate classes in individual inventory. In the morning class the counselor educator has 53 students and in the afternoon class she has 177 students. A statistician would expect that the range of scores on a test would be

a. greater in the afternoon class than the morning class.
b. smaller in the afternoon class.
c. impossible to speculate about without more data.
d. nearly the same in either class.

Answer 63

Greater in the afternoon class than the morning class.

The range generally increases with sample size.

Question 64

The variance is a measure of dispersion of scores around some measure of central tendency. The variance is the standard deviation squared. A popular IQ test has a standard deviation (SD) of 15. A counselor would expect that if the mean IQ score
is 100, then

a. the average score on the test would be 122.
b. 95% of the people who take the test will score between 85
and 115.
c. 99% of the people who take the test will score between 85
and 115.
d. 68% of the people who take the test will score between 85
and 115.

Answer 64

68% of the people who take the test will score between 85
and 115.

Statistically speaking 68.26% of the scores fall within + or -1 SD of the mean; 95.44% of the scores fall within + or -2 SD of the mean; and 99.74% of the scores fall within +/-3 SD of the mean.

Question 65

Using the data in question 764 one could say that a person with
an IQ score of 122 would fall within

a. + or -1 SD of the mean.
b. the average IQ range.
c. an IQ score which is more that 2 SD above the mean.
d. + or -2 SD of the mean.

Answer 65

+ or -2 SD of the mean.

Two SD would be IQs from 70 to 130 since 2 SD would be 30 IQ points. Please note that if everybody scored the same on the test then the SD would be zero. An SD, for example, of 1.8 has scores closer to the mean (i.e., not as spread out or scattered) than an SD of 2.8. The greater the SD, the greater is the spread.

Question 66

The standard deviation (SD) is the square root of the variance. A z-score of +1 would be the same as

a. 1 SD above the mean.
b. 1 SD below the mean.
c. the same as a so-called t-score.
d. the median score if the population is normal.

Answer 66

1 SD above the mean.

Z-scores are the same as standard deviations! In fact, z-scores are often called standard scores. Write it on your wrist and don’t wash it off for a week.

Question 67

Z-scores (also called standard scores) are the same as standard deviations, thus a z-score of -2.5 means

a. 2.5 SD below the mean.
b. 2.5 SD above the mean.
c. a CEEB score of 500.
d. –.05% of the population falls within this area of the curve.

Answer 67

2.5 SD below the mean.

Question 68

A t-score is different from a z-score. A z-score is the same as the SD. A t-score, however, has a mean of 50 with every 10 points landing at a SD above or below the mean. Thus a t-score of 60 would equal +1 SD while a t-score of 40 would be

a. –2SD.
b. –1SD.
c. a z-score of +2.
d. a z-score of +1.

Answer 68

–1SD.

Note that the t-score isn’t as mathematically threatening since it is never expressed as a negative number. Choice “a” would be a t-score of 30, choice “c” a t-score of 70, and choice “d” a t-score of 60. Here again, a look at the normal curve displayed in the Graphical Representations section of the book should be
helpful.

Question 69

An IQ score on an IQ test which was 3 SD above the mean would
be

a. about average.
b. slightly below the norm for adults.
c. approximately 110.
d. very superior.

Answer 69

Very superior.

Think of it this way. Over 99% of the population will score between + or -3 SD of the mean. Therefore, less than 1% of the population would score at a level 3 SD above the mean. Now that would be a very high IQ score; 145 on the WAIS-IV to be exact. Lewis M. Terman, a pioneer in the study of intelligence, classified any children with IQs over 140 as “geniuses.”

Question 70

A platykurtic distribution would look approximately like

a. the upper half of a bowling ball.
b. the normal distribution.
c. the upper half of a hot dog, lying on its side over the
abscissa.
d. a camel’s back.

Answer 70

The upper half of a hot dog, lying on its side over the
abscissa.

If you see the word kurtosis on your exam, it refers to the peakedness of a frequency distribution. A “platykurtic” distribution is flatter and more spread out than the normal curve.

Question 71

Test scores on an exam that fell below 3 SD of the mean or
above 3 SD of the mean could be described as

a. extreme.
b. very typical or within the average range.
c. close to the mean.
d. very low scores.

Answer 71

Extreme.

Question 72

In World War II the Air Force used stanine scores as a measurement. Stanine scores divide the distribution into nine equal intervals with stanine 1 as the lowest ninth and 9 as the highest ninth. In this system 5 is the mean. Thus a Binet IQ score of 101 would fall in stanine

a. 1.
b. 9.
c. 5.
d. 7.

Answer 72

5.

Stanine is the contraction of the words standard and nine. The mean or average score on the Binet is 100, so a Binet score of 101 would fall in stanine 5.

Question 73

There are four basic measurement scales: the nominal, the ordinal, the interval, and the ratio. The nominal scale is strictly a qualitative scale. It is the simplest type of scale. It is used to distinguish logically separated groups. Which of the following illustrates the function of the nominal scale?

a. A horse categorized as a second-place winner in a show.
b. A DSM or ICD diagnostic category.
c. An IQ score of 111.
d. The weight of an Olympic barbell set.

Answer 73

A DSM or ICD diagnostic category.

Question 74

The ordinal scale rank orders variables, though the relative distance between the elements is not always equal. An example of this would be

a. a horse categorized as a second-place winner in a race.
b. an IQ score of 111.
c. the weight of an Olympic barbell set.
d. a temperature of 78 degrees Fahrenheit.

Answer 74

A horse categorized as a second-place winner in a race.

Question 75

The interval scale has numbers scaled at equal distances but has no absolute zero point. Most tests used in school fall into this category. You can add and subtract using interval scales but
cannot multiply or divide. An example of this would be that
a. an IQ of 70 is 70 points below an IQ of 140, yet a counselor could not assert that a client with an IQ of 140 is twice as intelligent as a client with an IQ of 70.
b. a 20 lb weight is half as heavy as a 40 lb weight.
c. a first-place runner is three times as fast as the third-place
finisher.
d. a baseball player with number 9 on his uniform can get 9
times more hits than player number 1.

Answer 75

An IQ of 70 is 70 points below an IQ of 140, yet a counselor could not assert that a client with an IQ of 140 is twice as intelligent as a client with an IQ of 70.

Question 76

A ratio scale is an interval scale with a true zero point. Ratio measurements are possible using this scale. Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division all can be utilized on a ratio scale. In terms of counseling research

a. the ratio scale is the most practical.
b. all true studies utilize the ratio scale.
c. a and b.
d. most psychological attributes cannot be measured on a
ratio scale.

Answer 76

Most psychological attributes cannot be measured on a
ratio scale.

Question 77

Researchers often utilize naturalistic observation when doing ethological investigations or studying children’s behavior. In this approach

a. the researcher manipulates the IV.
b. the researcher manipulates the IV and the DV.
c. the researcher does not manipulate or control variables.
d. the researcher will rely on a 2 × 3 factorial design.

Answer 77

The researcher does not manipulate or control variables.

Question 78

The simplest form of descriptive research is the ________, which requires a questionnaire return or completion rate of ________ to be accurate.

a. survey;5%
b. survey;10–25%
c. survey;50–75%
d. survey;95%

Answer 78

Survey;50–75%

Question 79

A researcher gives a depressed patient a sugar pill and the individual’s depression begins to lift. This is known as

a. the Hawthorne effect.
b. the Halo effect.
c. the placebo effect.
d. the learned helplessness syndrome.

Answer 79

The placebo effect.

Question 80

A researcher notes that a group of clients who are not receiving counseling, but are observed in a research study, are improving. Her hypothesis is that the attention she has given them has been curative. The best explanation of their improvement would be

a. the Hawthorne effect.
b. the Halo effect.
c. the Rosenthal effect.
d. a Type II error in the research.

Answer 80

The Hawthorne effect.

Question 81

An elementary school counselor tells the third-grade teacher that a test revealed that certain children will excel during the school year. In reality, no such test was administered. Moreover, the children were unaware of the experiment. By the end of the year, all of the children who were supposed to excel did excel! This would best be explained via

a. the Hawthorne effect.
b. the Halo effect.
c. the Rosenthal effect or the experimenter expectancy effect.
d. observer bias.

Answer 81

The Rosenthal effect or the experimenter expectancy effect.

Question 82

A panel of investigators discovered that a researcher who completed a major study had unconsciously rated attractive females as better counselors. This is an example of

a. the Hawthorne effect.
b. the Halo effect.
c. the Rosenthal effect.
d. trend analysis.

Answer 82

The Halo effect.

Question 83

All of the following describe the analysis of covariance technique
except:

a. It is a correlation coefficient.
b. It controls for sample differences which exist.
c. It helps to remove confounding, extraneous variables.
d. It statistically eliminates differences in average values
influenced by covariates.

Answer 83

It is a correlation coefficient.

Question 84

Three years ago an inpatient addiction treatment center in a hospital asked their clients if they would like to undergo an archaic form of therapy created by Wilhelm Reich known as “vegotherapy.” Approximately half of the clients stated they would like try the treatment while the other 50% stated that they would stick with the tried-and-true program of the center. Outcome data on their drinking was compiled at the end of seven weeks. Today—three years later—a statistician compared the two groups based on their drinking behavior at the end of the seven weeks using a t test. This study could best be described as

a. correlation research.
b. a true experiment.
c. a cohort study.
d. causal comparative research.

Answer 84

Casual comparative research.

Question 85

The WAIS-IV IQ test is given to 100 adults picked randomly. How many of the adults most likely would receive an IQ score between 85 and 115?

a. 7.
b. 99.
c. 95.
d. 68.

Answer 85

68.

This is really an easy question to answer if you remember that in a normal distribution approximately 68% of the population will fall between +/-1 SD of the mean. One SD on most popular IQ tests is 15 or 16, and the mean score is generally 100.

Question 86

A researcher creates a new motoric test in which clients throw a baseball at a target 40 feet away. Each client is given 100 throws, and the mean on the test is 50. (In other words, out of 100 throws the mean number of times the client will hit the target is 50 times.) Sam took the test and hit the target just two times out of the 100 throws allowed. Jeff, on the other hand, hit the target an amazing 92 times out of 100 trials. Using the concept of statistical regression toward the mean the research would predict that

a. Sam’s and Jeff’s scores will stay about the same if they take the test again.
b. Sam and Jeff will both score over 95 next time.
c. Sam’s score will increase while Jeff’s will go down.
d. Sam will beat Jeff if they both are tested again.

Answer 86

Sam’s score will increase while Jeff’s will go down.

Statistical regression is a threat to internal validity. Statistical
regression predicts that very high and very low scores will move toward the mean if a test is administered again.

Question 87

Standardized tests always have

a. formal procedures for test administration and scoring.
b. a mean of 100 and an SD of 15.
c. a mean of 100 and a standard error of measurement of 3.
d. a reliability coefficient of +.90 or above.

Answer 87

Formal procedures for test administration and scoring.

Standardization implies that the testing format, the test materials, and the scoring process are consistent.

Question 88

There are two distinct types of developmental studies. In a cross- sectional study, clients are assessed at one point in time. In a longitudinal study, however,

a. the researcher has an accomplice pose as a client and act in a certain manner.
b. the same people are studied over a period of time.
c. the researcher relies on a single observation of a variable
being investigated.
d. all of the above.

Answer 88

The same people are studied over a period of time.

Question 89

A counselor educator, Dr. Y, is doing research on his classes. He hypothesizes that if he reinforces students in his morning class by smiling each time a student asks a relevant question, then more students will ask questions and exam grades will go up. Betty and Linda accidentally overhear Dr. Y discussing the experiment with the department chair. Betty is a real people pleaser and decides that she will ask lots of questions and try to help Dr. Y confirm his hypothesis. Linda, nevertheless, is angry that she is being experimented on and promises Betty that Dr. Y could smile until the cows came in but she still wouldn’t ask a question. Both Linda and Betty exemplify

a. internal versus external validity.
b. ipsative versus normative interpretation of test scores.
c. the use of the nonparametric chi-square test.
d. demand characteristics of experiments.

Answer 89

Demand characteristics of experiments.

A demand characteristic relates to any bit of knowledge—correct or incorrect—that the subject in an experiment is aware of that can influence his or her behavior. Demand characteristics can confound an experiment. Deception has been used as a tactic to reduce this dilemma.

Question 90

If an ANOVA yields a significant F value, you could rely on
________ to test significant differences between group means.

a. one- and two-tailed t tests
b. percentile rank
c. Duncan’s multiple-range, Tukey’s, or Scheffe’s test
d. summative or formative evaluation

Answer 90

Duncan’s multiple-range, Tukey’s, or Scheffe’s test

Question 91

Switching the order in which stimuli are presented to a subject
in a study is known as

a. the Pygmalion effect.
b. counter balancing.
c. a historic therapy.
d. multiple treatment interference.

Answer 91

Counter balancing.

Question 92

A doctoral student who begins working on his bibliography for his thesis would most likely utilize

a. SPSS.
b. ERIC, for primary and secondary resources.
c. O*NET.
d. a random number table or random number-generation
computer program.

Answer 92

ERIC, for primary and secondary resources.

Question 93

In a random sample each individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected. Selection is by chance. In a new study, however, it will be important to include 20% African Americans. What type of sampling procedure will be necessary?

a. Standard (i.e., simple) random sampling is adequate.
b. Cluster sampling is called for.
c. Stratified sampling would be best.
d. Horizontal sampling is required.

Answer 93

Stratified sampling would be best.

Question 94

A researcher wants to run a true experiment but insists she will not use a random sample. You could safely say that

a. she absolutely, positively cannot run a true experiment.
b. her research will absolutely, positively be casual comparative
research.
c. she could accomplish this using systematic sampling.
d. her research will be correlational.

Answer 94

She absolutely, positively cannot run a true experiment.

Question 95

An operational definition

a. outlines a procedure.
b. is theoretical.
c. outlines a construct.
d. is synonymous with the word axiom.

Answer 95

Outlines a procedure.

Question 96

In a parametric test the assumption is that the scores are normally distributed. In nonparametric testing the curve is not a normal distribution. Which of these tests are nonparametric statistical measures?

a. Mann–Whitney U test, often just called the U test.
b. Wilcoxon signed-rank test for matched pairs.
c. Soloman and the Kruskal–Wallis H test.
d. All of the above are nonparametric measures.

Answer 96

All of the above are nonparametric measures.

Question 97

A researcher studies a single session of counseling in which a counselor treats a client’s phobia using a paradoxical strategy. He then writes in his research report that paradox is the treatment of choice for phobics. This is an example of

a. deductive logic or reasoning.
b. inductive logic or reasoning.
c. attrition or so-called experimental mortality.
d. construct validity.

Answer 97

Inductive logic or reasoning.

Question 98

A client goes to a string of 14 chemical dependency centers that operate on the 12-step model. When his current therapist suggests a new inpatient program the client responds with,
“What for, I already know the 12 steps?” This client is using

a. deductive logic.
b. inductive logic.
c. an empathic assertion.
d. an I statement.

Answer 98

Deductive logic.

Question 99

Mike takes a math achievement test. In order to predict his score if he takes the test again the counselor must know

a. the range of scores in his class.
b. the standard deviation.
c. the standard error of measurement (SEM).
d. the mode for the test.

Answer 99

The standard error of measurement (SEM).

The standard error is all you need to know. The SEM tells the counselor what would most likely occur if the same individual took the same test again. The question does not ask how well he did on the test, nor does it ask you to compare him to others.

Question 100

A researcher performs a study that has excellent external or so- called population validity, meaning that the results have generalizability. To collect his data the researcher gave clients a rating scale in which they were to respond with strongly agree, somewhat agree, neutral, somewhat disagree, or strongly disagree. This is

a. a projective measure.
b. unacceptable for use in standardized testing.
c. a speed test.
d. a Likert Scale.

Answer 100

A Likert Scale.