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IGCSE Biology > Topic 4c > Flashcards

Topic 4c Flashcards

Disease & immunity Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration Gas exchange in humans

1
Q

Types of pathogen [4]

A

1) BActeria
2) Viruses
3) Fungi
4) Protozoa

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2
Q

Bacteria

A

Single-cell organisms without a nucleus Example: Strep throat, food poisoning, pneumona

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3
Q

Viruses

A

Non living particle

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4
Q

Define transmissable diseases

A

Is a disease in which the pathogen can be passed from one host to another

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5
Q

Diseases can be transmitted through.. [2]

A

1) Direct contact- blood or other body fluids
2) Indirect contact- contaminated surfaces or food, from animals, or from airborne pathogens

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6
Q

types of body defense systems [3]

A

1) Mechanical barrier- Skin and hairs in the nose
2) Chemical barriers- Mucus and stomach acid, antibacterial tears
3) Cellular barrier- Phagocyotsis and antibody production by lymphocytes, Can be enhanced by vaccination

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7
Q

Lymphocytes

A

Cells that tag foregin material (Antigen) with antibodies, targeting the material for destruction

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8
Q

Phagocytes

A

Eat/engulf foreign material through phagocytosis

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9
Q

Antibodies bind to antigens on pathogens

A

1) The shape of the antigen is complimentary to the binding groove on the protein antibody
2) Once the antibody-antigen complex is formed it marks the foreign material for destruction by phagocytes
3) Our body needs to create an antibody specific for every pathogen for an adpative immune response to occur

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10
Q

Define antigen [2]

A

1) Antigens are any structures that can be identified by an immune system
2) each organism has its own antigen

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11
Q

How to control the spread of diseases [3]

A

1) Clean water supplies
2) Hyigenic food preparation
3) Good personal hygiene
4) Waste disposal
5) Sewage treatment
6) Quarantine

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12
Q

Process of vaccination [4]

A

1) A weakened pathogen or specific antigen is put into the body
2) The antigen stimulates lymphocytes to produce antibodies
3) Complimentary antibody bind to the antigen, tagging it for destruction by phagocytes
4) Memory cells are produced that allow for the antibody to be produced rapidly in future, therefore giving you immunity

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13
Q

Why do we always feel more sick from first infections [2]

A

1) It takes our body mnay days to create antibodies that will fit an antigen if we have never been exposed to it
2) The second time our body is exposed it recognises the antigen much faster and can start producing antibodies within hours

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14
Q

Active immunity [3]

A

1) Defense against a pathogen by producing the antibody within the body
2) Is gained after an infection by a pathogen, or by vaccination
3) Memory cells are produced

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15
Q

Passive immunity [3]

A

1) Short term defence against a pathogen by antibodies acquired from another individual, e.g mother to infant from milk, mother to foetus through blood
2) Important for new-borns get all antibodies from the mother
3) Does not produce memory cells

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16
Q

Ventilation

A

Requires pressure so air can be forced in and out of the alveoli

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17
Q

function of diaphragm

A

Sheet of muslce that separates the thorax from the abdomen

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18
Q

WHere is intercostal mucles

A

Between the ribs

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19
Q

Process of inhalation [5]

A

1) Internal intercostal muscles relax and external intercostal muscles contract, pulling ribs up and out
2) Diaphragm also contracts and flattens
3) Volume of thorax increases
4) Air pressure in thorax decreases, creating a negative pressure
5) Air enters the lungs to equilibriate pressures

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20
Q

What muslces are contracting/relaxing in inhalation

A

1) Internal intercostal muscles relax and external intercostal muscles contract, pulling ribs up and out
2) Diaphragm also contracts and flattens

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21
Q

How inhalation affects thorax

A

Volume of thorax increases

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22
Q

How does inhalation affect the air pressure

A

Air pressure in thorax decreases creating a negative pressure

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23
Q

Air move in or out during inhalation

A

Air enters the lungs to equilibriate pressures

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24
Q

What muslces are contracting/relaxing in exhalation

A

1) Internal intercostal muscles contract and external intercostal muscles relax, pulling ribs down and in
2) Diaphragm also relaxes and moves up

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25
Q

How inhalation affects thorax

A

Volume of thorax decreases

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26
Q

How does exhalation affect the air pressure

A

Air pressure in thorax increases creating a positive pressure

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27
Q

Air move in or out during exhalation

A

Air exists the lungs to equilibriate pressures

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28
Q

Process of exhalation [5]

A

1) Internal intercostal muscles contract and external intercostal muscles relax, pulling ribs down and in
2) Diaphragm also relaxes and moves up
3) Volume of thorax decreases
4) Air pressure in thorax increases, creating a positive pressure
5) Air exists the lungs to equilibriate pressures

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29
Q

Cartilage in trachea

A

Made up of rings of cartilage
Helps keep trachea from collapsing

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30
Q

Route of oxygen

A

1) Down trachea
2) Through left and right bronchus
3) Through bronchioles within each lung
4) Alveoli is the site of gas exchange with bloodstream

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31
Q

Alveolus adaptations [4]

A

1) Covered in capillaries reducing diffusion distance
2) Alvoli only 1 cell thick reducing diffusion distance
3) Large surface area in contract between capillaries and alveoli
4) Blood is flowing through capillaries, maintaning concentration gradient

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32
Q

Laws of diffusion [4]

A

1) The movement of the oxygen from the blood to the cells also follows the law of diffusion
2) Highly concentrated within the blood
3) Meanwhile the blood concentration is low within the cell
4) Therefore the oxygen passes into the body cells

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33
Q

How can you be infected with chlorea

A

Ingested via infected water or food, if it enters the small intestine it can cause illness

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34
Q

Explain how cholera causes diarrhoea [7]

A

1) Bacteria attach to the wall of the small intestine
2) They produce a toxin
3) The toxin stimulates the cells lining the intestine to release chloride ions from inside the cells into the lumen of the intestine
4) The chloride ions accumulate in the lumen of the small intestine and lower the water potential there
5) Once the water potential is lower than that of the cells lining the intestine, water starts to move out of the cells into the intestine (by osmosis)
6) Large quantities of water are lost from the body in watery faeces
7)The blood contains too little chloride ions and water

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35
Q

How can severe diarrhoea lead to death?

A

Severe diarrhoea can cause the loss of significant amounts of water and ions from the body, causing the tissues and organs to stop working properly

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36
Q

How can cholera infection be treated?

A

1) oral rehydration therapy
2) This is a drink with a small amount of salt and sugar dissolved in it

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37
Q

Define pathogen

A

Disease causing organism

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38
Q

Explain the role of vaccination in controlling the spread of diseases

A

Give protection against specific diseases and boost the body’s defence against infection without being exposed to dangerous diseases

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39
Q

Examples of active immunity [2]

A

1) The body has become infected with a pathogen and so the lymphocytes go through the process of making antibodies specific to that pathogen

2) Vaccination

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40
Q

Define antigen

A

All cells have molecules, such as proteins, projecting from their cell membranes
These are known as antigens

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41
Q

Example of passive immunity [2]

A

1) Through the placenta
2) Breast milk

42
Q

Function of a larynx

A

Lid to stop food going down ur trachea when swallowing

43
Q

Inspired air composition [3]

A

1) 21% oxygen
2) 0.04% carbon dioxide
3) 78% nitrogen

44
Q

Expired air composition [3]

A

1) 16% oxygen
2) 4% carbon dioxide
3) 78% nitrogen

45
Q

What is water vapor concentration like in exhaled air compared to inhaled air?

A

Water vapor concentration is higher in exhaled air

46
Q

Respiration word equation

A

Oxygen + glucose -> Carbon dioxide + water + energy

47
Q

Goblet cells functions and location

A

In the lung epithelium
Produce and secrete mucus
looks like cups

48
Q

How does mucus help our body

A

Traps bacteria, viruses, and any other particles that enter our lungs

49
Q

Cilia functions and location

A

Small hairs on the surface of epithelial cells, they push mucus and other small particles towards the nose and throat

50
Q

Pulmonary is to do with..

A

lungs
ex: pulmonary cells
pulmonary veins

51
Q

Explain what happens to heart and lung as we exercise [2]

A

1) Our rate of breathing increases and the tidal volume (Air in and out per breath) this is to maintain concentrations of oxygen and low concentrations of carbon dioxide in alveoli, therefore maintaining the steep concentration gradients between blood and alveoli
2) Our heart pumps faster. to transport oxygen and glucose to body cells faster and to transport carbon dioxide in to alveoli faster to maintain the high rates of respiration

52
Q

Breathing during exercise [5]

A

1) Muscle cell respiration increases
2) The brain detects increasing pH in blood - a signal is sent to the lungs to increase breathing
3) Breathing rate and volume of air in each breath increase, more gaseous exchange
4) The brain tells the heart to beat faster
5) More oxygenated blood gets to muscle, CO2 is removed

53
Q

The effect of the catalyst on rate of reaction

A

Reactants require less energy to successfully collide therefore the frequency of successful collisions increases

54
Q

Ways energy is used in organisms [7]

A

1) Cell division
2) Actve transport
3) Movement
4) Temperature maintenance
5) Protein synthesis
6) Muscle contractions
7) Sending nerve signals

55
Q

Define Aerobic respiration

A

The breakdown of glucose to release energy using oxygen

56
Q

Aerobic respiration equation word and chemical

A

1) glucose + oxygen -> carbon dioxide + water
2) C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O

57
Q

Pros and cons of aerobic respiration

A

1) Releases more energy per glucose molecule
2) Requires oxygen

58
Q

Define anaerobic respiration

A

The breakdown of glucose to release energy without oxygen

59
Q

Anaerobic respiration for yeast and muscle cells [3]

A

1) Yeast: Glucose -> alcohol + carbon dioxide
2) C6H1206 -> 2C2H5OH + 2CO2
3) Muscle: Glucose -> Lactic acid

60
Q

Pros and cons of anaerobic respiration [2]

A

1) Does not require oxygen
2) Produces much less energy per glucose (ATP per glucose) . Also produces latic acid creating an oxygen debt that must be paid back later

61
Q

What happens when we cant get enough oxygen for aerobic respiration [3]

A

1) vigorous exercise cause our bodies to aerobically respire at a high rate. During this period oxygen is used faster in body cells than it can be replaced by gas exchange
2) Body cells run out of oxygen but they can still produce more energy using anerobic respiration however it creates lactic acid and it is inefficient
3) Anaerobic respiration creates an oxygen debt as oxygen is required to convert lactic acid back to pyruvate in the liver

62
Q

How to recover from oxygen debt [3]

A

1) Continue fast heart rate to pump lactic acid to liver faster
2) Continue deep and fast breathing to supply oxygen for aerobic respiration of lactic acid back into pyruvate
3) Aerobic respiration of lactic acid in the liver

63
Q

Carbon dioxide test

A

Bubble gas though lime water turns cloudy positive turns clear negative

64
Q

Define respiration

A

Chemical reactions that break down nutrients to release energy inside cells

65
Q

define yeast

A

SIngle cell fungus

66
Q

Define excretion

A

The removal of toxic materials, the waste products of metabolism, and substances in excess of requirements

67
Q

Organs in excretion [4]

A

1) Skin
2) Lungs
3) Liver
4) Kidneys

68
Q

Skin in excretion

A

Water and mineral ions

69
Q

Lungs in excretion

A

Carbon dioxide and water

70
Q

Liver in excretion

A

Produces urea from amino acids

71
Q

Kidneys in excretion

A

Excrete water, mineral ions, and urea

72
Q

Deamination definition and usage

A

De-aminonising so breaking down protein to make ureaU

73
Q

Ureter functions

A

Transports urine from the kidneys to the bladder

74
Q

Bladder functions

A

Collects urine prior to urination

75
Q

Urethra functions

A

Faciliates the removal of urine from body

76
Q

What is the role of kidneys [3]

A

1( Removal of urea from blood
2) Adjustment of ions in the blood
3) adjustment of water in the blood

77
Q

Roles of the kidneys [3]

A

1) Maintaining water and ion balance in the body
2) Filter urea out of blood and exrete it
3) Waste products are transferred to the bladder

78
Q

Removal of urea [3]

A

1) Proteins cannot be stored by the body so excess amino acids are broken down by the liver - this is called deamination
2) The waste product is urea and filtred out by the kidneys
3) Urea is toxic waste product so must be excreted before it reaches high concentrations

79
Q

Adjustment of ion content [2]

A

1) Ions such as sodium are taken into the body in food
2) Excess ions are removed by the kidneys

80
Q

Adjustment of water content (Too little water)

A

1) Hypothalamus detects & Pituitary releases AFH
2) More ADH enters kidney- more water is reabsorbed
3) Less urine which is more concentrated is produced

81
Q

Adjustment of water content ) Too much water in blood)

A

1) Hypothalamus detects & Pituitary releases less adh
2) Less water is reabosrbed so more urine and less concentrated

82
Q

Kidney structure [4]

A

1) Renal vein
2) Renal artery
3) Cortex
4) Medulla

83
Q

`Renal vein

A

Transports filtered blood back to the heart

84
Q

Renal artery

A

Transports in unfiltered blood from the aortta into the kidney

85
Q

Cortex

A

Blood is filtered here by nephrons

86
Q

medulla

A

Reabsorption of water to maintain water balance occurs here

87
Q

Ultrafiltration [2]

A

1) The glomerulus is a knot of blood vessels surrounded by the renal capsule
2) High blood pressure in the glomerulus forces water, ions, urea and glucose out of the blood
3) Smaller molecules are forced out of the capillaries of the glomerulus into the Bowman’s capsule

88
Q

Selective reabsorption [2]

A

1) Renal Reflection can be shown by the waves hitting a plane (straight) surface, such as a wall or mirror: All glucose is reabsorbed
Sufficient ions/salt is reabsorbed
SufSuffcient water is also reabsorbed
2) rest is passed on to the bladder as urine

89
Q

why is the urea produced?

A

The liver cant store protein so it breaks it down into aminoacids which contains nitrogen, so it becomes a toxic material,

90
Q

Factors the affect volume and concentration of urine [2]

A

1) Water (intake)
2) Exercise / sweat produce
3) The temperature (of the body or environment)

91
Q

Explain the importance of excreting carbon dioxide [3]

A

1) It dissolves easily in water which can dissolve in our body (70% water)
2) Lowers the pH of our blood
3) Denatures our enzyme

92
Q

Why antibiotics aren’t successful in treating influenza? [2]

A

1) Influenza is a virus
2) Antibiotics don’t destroy viruses

93
Q

Explain why a viral infection is not treatable with antibiotics [3]

A

1) Antibiotics are not effective against viruses
2) Antibiotics inhibit bacterial processes
3) Viruses replicate inside host cells which antibiotics cannot reach

94
Q

The measles vaccine will not give a child immunity against the influenza virus explain why [2]

A

1) Each pathogen has its own antigen
2) Antibodies for 1 type of pathogen won’t work for another type of pathogen

95
Q

spaniards visitied a tribe, the tribe died out due to influenza, but the spaniards were fine. Explain why [3]

A

1) The spaniards were carriers of the influenza
2) The tribe did not have immunity against pathogen whereas the spaniards did
3) This is due to the tribe’s lack of exposure to this type of pathogen.

96
Q

How does The body prevents particles in inspired air from reaching the gas exchange surfaces [4]

A

1) Hairs inside the nose trap particles
2) Particles become trapped in mucus
3) Cilia move the mucus by wafting/beating motion
4) Mucus moves away from the gas exchange surfaces towards the throat

97
Q

What causes the ribs to move during inspiration

A

intercoastal muscles

98
Q

factors that influence gas exhcange surfaces [4]

A

1) Good Ventilation
2) Good Blood supply
3) Large Surface area
4) THin walls

99
Q

Which type of tissue is effected by tracheal collapse? [2]

A

1) Cartilage
2) Trachea is made of rings of cartilage, if they are weak then the rings will collpase under negative pressure

100
Q
A

IGCSE Biology (9 decks)

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