1B2 Ethics and Science

Question 1

What is Epidemiology?

Answer 1

A process used in the medical field to study diseases. It includes determining the distribution, frequency, patterns, causes, and risk factors of diseases to control them.

Epidemiology involves tracing diseases back to environmental and human factors that contribute to disease development, with a focus on assessing community health.

Question 2

Who are Epidemiologists?

Answer 2

Also known as Disease Detectives who work to control diseases by studying their distribution, frequency, patterns, causes, and risk factors.

Question 3

What is the attack rate in Epidemiology?

Answer 3

The percentage of people who become ill due to a certain risk behavior of an agent, observed in a narrowly defined population for a limited time period.

Question 4

What does the incident rate measure in Epidemiology?

Answer 4

The frequency of reported illnesses in a population over a period of time.

Question 5

What is analytic epidemiology?

Answer 5

A process that researches the cause and effect of illnesses by comparing groups to determine the association between risk factors and outcomes.

Question 6

What does the mortality rate in Epidemiology detail?

Answer 6

The frequency of death among infected persons during a certain interval of time, including age-specific rates.

Question 7

What does age-specific rates in epidemiology determine?

Answer 7

How many occurrences of the agent happen among a certain population.

Question 8

What is co-morbidity in the context of epidemiology?

Answer 8

A person’s health is compromised due to the presence of two or more simultaneous conditions or diseases.

Question 9

What are the steps for an outbreak investigation?

Answer 9

1. Investigating how many people became sick.
2. Determining their risk factors.
3. Gathering diagnosis information.
4. Creating clinical criteria.
5. Pinpointing the location of the outbreak.

Question 10

What are the different types of epidemiological studies?

Answer 10

• Case-control
• Cross-sectional
• Cohort studies

Question 11

What occurs during descriptive epidemiology?

Answer 11

Characterizing the outbreak by time, place, and person, repeating until new information is reported.

Question 12

What are the ten steps in the epidemiology process?

Answer 12

1. Prepare for the investigation
2. Establish the existence of an outbreak
3. Verify the diagnosis
4. Establish case definition
5. Conduct descriptive epidemiology
6. Develop hypotheses
7. Evaluate hypotheses
8. Refine hypotheses
9. Implement control and prevention measures
10. Communicate findings

The epidemiology process contains steps similar to the scientific method.

Question 13

What are the three main patterns that epidemiologists may identify?

Answer 13

• Epidemic
• Endemic
• Pandemic

Question 14

What is an epidemic?

Answer 14

When a disease occurs suddenly and affects a disproportionately large number of people in a given area or a population at one time.

Example: The Ebola epidemic of 2014.

Question 15

What is an endemic?

Answer 15

When a disease is regularly found within a certain population of people or in a certain area and is predictable.

Chicken pox and malaria are examples of endemics.

Question 16

What is the difference between an epidemic and an endemic?

Answer 16

• Epidemic - affects a large number of people suddenly in a specific area.
• Endemic - is regularly found within a certain population or area.

Epidemic - The yellow fever epidemic of 1793
Endemic - chicken pox

Question 17

What is a pandemic?

Answer 17

An epidemic that is worldwide or over a significantly large area and affects a large portion of the population.

Question 18

What was the most dangerous flu pandemic recorded in history?

Answer 18

The Spanish flu of 1918 was the most dangerous flu pandemic, infecting an estimated 500 million people and causing tens of millions of deaths worldwide.

Caused by the H1N1 virus. 500 million people were made ill, while 20-50 million people died.

Question 19

How is chicken pox transmitted?

Answer 19

Through droplets in the air after an infected child sneezes or coughs.

Chicken pox was first discovered in the 1500s and mostly affects school-aged children.

Question 20

What is the disease that is regularly seen in most countries of Africa and other tropical regions close to the equator?

Answer 20

Malaria

Over 180 million people contract malaria every year with over 550,000 people dying from the disease.

Question 21

What is the main mode of transmission for malaria?

Answer 21

Through mosquitoes that carry one of five species of Plasmodium parasites that can infect humans.

Malaria is seen regularly in most countries of Africa and other tropical regions close to the equator. Malaria has been eradicated in the United States since the 1940s.

Question 22

What is another notable pandemic besides the Spanish flu?

Answer 22

HIV

(Human Immunodeficiency Virus)

The first cases were identified in 1984 with the peak of HIV infection in 1996. By the end of 2013, approximately 35 million people had been infected.

Question 23

What does a genome contain?

Answer 23

A complete set of DNA.

Question 24

What is DNA forensics?

Answer 24

DNA forensics is the use of DNA profiling techniques to identify individuals in criminal investigations based on biological samples such as blood, saliva, or hair.

Question 25

What is **medical technology**?

Answer 25

The use of technology to develop solutions to health issues and to improve wellbeing. ## Footnote 2 main areas of medical technology are *diagnosis* and *treatment* of disease.

Question 26

What are examples of medical technology for **diagnosis**?

Answer 26

* Stethoscopes * Hypodermic needles * Blood pressure cuffs * MRI scanners * Heart monitors * EKG machines * X-ray

Question 27

What are examples of medical technology that are used for **treatment of diseases**?

Answer 27

* Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation (ECMO) * Ventilators * Radiation ## Footnote Blood is removed from the body, oxygenated externally, and then returned to circulation.

Question 28

What are **ethics** in scientific investigations?

Answer 28

Moral principles that govern a person's behavior in scientific research. ## Footnote Ethics are important because scientists do research that can impact society, involve human and animal subjects, and can lead to the creation of dangerous weapons.

Question 29

What are the key aspects of scientific ethics related to conducting studies?

Answer 29

* Honesty about data and findings * Objectivity in analyzing data * Transparency in sharing raw data

Question 30

Why is **transparency** important in scientific research?

Answer 30

To reduce the chance of data falsification and to ensure greater credibility in research. ## Footnote To prevent scientists from 'making up' data.

Question 31

What is **gene therapy**?

Answer 31

A technique that allows doctors to prevent or treat a disease by **manipulating genetic material** as opposed to administering medication or performing surgery. ## Footnote Gene therapy is only able to be administered through clinical trials at this time.

Question 32

What disorders have shown promise in gene therapy clinical trials?

Answer 32

* Severe Combined Immune Deficiency (SCID) * Adenosine deaminase (ADA) deficiency ## Footnote Gene therapy has also been used to treat Parkinson's by injecting dopamine-producing genes into brain cells. Gene therapy has shown potential benefits for hemophiliacs by introducing clotting factors that would otherwise be missing into the blood.

Question 33

How can gene therapy work?

Answer 33

* Replace a mutated gene with a healthy copy. * 'Knock out' a mutated gene. * Introduce completely novel genes into a person's body. ## Footnote Gene therapy can be used to treat diseases by manipulating genetic material in various ways.

Question 34

What are some pros and cons of **genetic intervention**?

Answer 34

* **Pros**: * Potential to cure serious conditions * Treat genetic disorders, cancer, and HIV/AIDS * **Cons**: * New and largely untested treatment * Uncertainty about long-term outcomes

Question 35

What is **germline gene therapy**?

Answer 35

The treatment of egg and sperm cells that could be passed on to offspring.

Question 36

What are the **potential risks** of germline gene therapy?

Answer 36

* Limited knowledge on long-term side effects * Lack of consent from offspring

Question 37

Why does the U.S. Government prohibit federal funds for research on germline gene therapy in humans?

Answer 37

Due to ethical concerns about the potential impact on future generations. ## Footnote Scientists are unsure if gene therapy introduced to somatic cells through a virus could spread to germline cells.

Question 38

What is **genetic engineering**?

Answer 38

Modifying or manipulating a living organism's genetic information in order to achieve desirable traits in the organism.

Question 39

What are some applications of genetic engineering in agriculture and the environment?

Answer 39

* Develop new crops that are resistant to diseases or drought. * Genetically engineer animals to produce more meat per animal. * Use genetic selection to increase milk output per cow. ## Footnote Genetic engineering has been used to improve food production and reduce environmental impact.

Question 40

# Define: cloning

Answer 40

Creating a **biological duplicate** of genes, cells, tissues, or organisms.

Question 41

# Define: human cloning

Answer 41

In human/artificial cloning, segments of DNA, whole organisms, or embryonic stem cells are **cloned for medical and research purposes**. ## Footnote It can occur naturally when identical twins are born.

Question 42

# Define: reproductive cloning

Answer 42

It involves the cloning of a living organism, such as the process used to clone *Dolly the sheep*. ## Footnote Many embryos produced through reproductive cloning do not mature, resulting in high rates of abortions, stillbirths, and developmental abnormalities.

Question 43

What are **telomeres** and how are they affected in organisms born through reproductive cloning?

Answer 43

DNA sequences at the end of chromosomes that shorten naturally as an organism ages. ## Footnote In organisms born through reproductive cloning, telomeres are shorter due to the transfer of donor DNA to a denucleated egg.

Question 44

What is the **main legal concern** regarding human cloning?

Answer 44

The rights of the cloned individual. ## Footnote Legal concerns center on whether cloned individuals would have the same rights and protections as naturally born humans.

Question 45

What are some **social implications** regarding human cloning?

Answer 45

* Society may not accept cloned humans as real people. * Fear and other influences could play a role in how cloned humans are treated.

Question 46

What is **eugenics** and how does it relate to cloning?

Answer 46

The idea that humans can be improved through artificial selection. ## Footnote Cloning could be used to discriminate or further eugenics, impacting societal relations and the human gene pool.

Question 47

What is non-reproductive cloning, or therapeutic cloning?

Answer 47

Involves the **cloning of segments of DNA or embryonic stem cells** for research or treating diseases.

Question 48

What is **gene cloning** used for?

Answer 48

* Synthesizing vitamins and hormones * Gene therapy * Creating a gene library

Question 49

What are the potential **ethical issues** in cloning?

Answer 49

Potential conflicts with religious values, societal norms, and moral frameworks. ## Footnote Ethical issues arise due to the potential to create a genetically identical clone to a human.

Question 50

Are there **laws** banning human cloning in the United States?

Answer 50

There are currently **no laws banning human cloning** in the United States, but there are **restrictions** on government funding for cloning research.

Question 51

What is the **difference** between the legal status of **cloning** in the United States and the United Kingdom?

Answer 51

* Reproductive cloning is **banned** in most countries including the **UK**. * Therapeutic cloning and embryonic stem cell cloning are **legal** in the **UK**. * The **US** has **no federal laws** prohibiting human cloning. ## Footnote Different countries have varying legislation regarding human cloning.

Question 52

Which **countries** have laws that **ban human cloning** or restrict certain types of human cloning?

Answer 52

* Austria * France * Germany * The Netherlands

Question 53

What **ethical concerns** exist about genetic engineering?

Answer 53

Potential reduction of differences between people if parents can choose traits like sex, intelligence, and attractiveness.

Question 54

Why is **genetic diversity** important in a population?

Answer 54

For developing resistance to certain diseases and adapting to an ever-changing environment. ## Footnote Genetic diversity helps in maintaining a healthy gene pool.

Question 55

What is the scientist's responsibility regarding safety in experiments?

Answer 55

Scientists must ensure the safety of everyone involved by following necessary precautions and issuing safety briefings.

Question 56

Why is it important for animals used in biological studies to be ethically and lawfully procured from certified vendors for laboratory studies?

Answer 56

To ensure that research animals are not pets and that they have known genetics and medical histories. ## Footnote Genetics and medical history can greatly influence the outcome of a biological study.

Question 57

What should animals obtained for laboratory studies be checked for?

Answer 57

* Tattoos * Microchips * Conservation status ## Footnote To ensure proper procurement and ethical treatment.

Question 58

Why is it crucial for **animals in biological studies** to have appropriate housing and medical care needs met?

Answer 58

To maintain the animal's well-being and to avoid behavioral and physiological changes that can affect research outcomes. ## Footnote Animals should be provided with appropriate nesting materials and environmental controls, such as heat lamps. Deviation from standard protocols can greatly influence research performance.