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PSYC 305 > 2. Getting Organized & Classified > Flashcards

2. Getting Organized & Classified Flashcards

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1
Q

Trait / Disposition

A

A building block of personality, traits are universal dimensions with individual differences.

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2
Q

Two Perspectives on Traits

A
  1. Traits as Internal Causal Properties (Internal traits cause people to act in particular ways)
  2. Traits as Purely Descriptive Summaries (Traits are purely descriptive summaries of attributes of persons, they make no assumptions about internality or causality)
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3
Q

The Act Frequency Formulation of Traits

A

Looks at implications of the descriptive summary trait perspective. Traits are viewed as categories of acts.

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4
Q

The Three Elements of The

Act Frequency Research Program

A

Act nomination, prototypicality judgement, and the recording of act performance

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5
Q

Act Frequency Research Program (AFRP)

Act Nomination

A

First step of AFRP. A procedure designed to identify which acts belong in which trait categories. Essentially, involves slotting behaviours/outward manifestations of traits into specific categories.

Eg. Categorizing someone striking up conversation with a stranger as an act of friendliness/extraversion

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6
Q

Act Frequency Research Program (AFRP)

Prototypicality Judgement

A

Second step of AFRP. Identifying which acts are most central to (prototypical of) each trait, as in, what acts are the best examples of a trait.

Eg. Impusively spending a large sum of money may be ranked as more impulsive than making a snap decision to go out with friends

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7
Q

Act Frequency Research Program (AFRP)

Recording of Act Performance

A

Third step of AFRP. Securing information on the performance of individuals in their daily lives.

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8
Q

List the three approaches to identifying the ‘most important’ traits

A

Lexical approach, statistical approach, theoretical approach

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9
Q

Lexical Approach to IDing Personality Traits

A

In which traits listed and defined in the dictionary form the basis of describing differences among people. Uses the lexical hypothesis that all important individual differences have become encoded within the natural language.

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10
Q

The Lexical Approach’s Two Criteria For Identifying Important Traits

A

Synonym Frequency: The more synonyms there are to describe an attribute, the more important that attribute is.
Cross-Cultural Universality: The more important a difference/attribute is, the more languages that will have a term for it.

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11
Q

Statistical Approach to IDing Personality Traits

Make sure to be able to define covariance

A

In which researchers use factor analysis to identify major personality traits.
The statistical approach starts with a large, diverse pool of personality items, and asks individuals to self-rate based on those items.
Then, researchers apply statistical methods in order to sort items by covariance.
Factor analysis is the primary statistical method: Helps us determine groups of items that “covary” or “go together.”
From the textbook: The goal is to identify dimensions/“coordinates” on the personality map.

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12
Q

Factor Analysis

A

Factor Analysis: Identifies groups of items that covary (go together) with each other, but not with other groups of items.
F.A. reveals clusters that have common properties, and can be useful in reducing large swathes of personality traits into a smaller and more useful set of underlying factors.

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13
Q

Factor Loadings

A

Indexes of how much of the variation in an item is “explained” by a factor (basically correlations).

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14
Q

Theoretical Approach to IDing Personality Traits

A

Starts with a theory, and the theory determines which variables or traits are important to study.

If the theory is very good, it will save us a lot of time spent looking at unhelpful variables.
But, depending on how much the theory contains gaps or biases, there can be many flaws/omissions/distortions as well.

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15
Q

Taxonomy

A

A classification scheme.

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16
Q

Eysenck’s Hierarchical Model of Personality

Make sure to know the three broad traits

A

A model of personality, based on traits Eysenck believed were highly heritable/had a likely psychophysiological foundation.
Three traits:
E - Extraversion (introversion)
N - Neuroticism (emotional stability)
P - Psychoticism
His model was hierarchical, with narrow traits falling under broad traits. Narrow traits consist of habitual actions (patterns), which consist of specific actions.

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17
Q

Eysenck

Extraversion Narrow Traits + Psychophysiology

A

Traits: Sociable, active, lively, dominant, etc.
Psychophysiology: Extraverts experience more positive affect. Introverts have higher cortical and nervous system arousal to moderate-to-high levels of stimulation.

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18
Q

Neuroticism Narrow Traits + Psychophysiology (Eysenck)

A

Traits: Anxiety, depression, guilt, low-self-esteem, emotional
Psychophysiology: Associated with greater reactivity (physiological and psychological) to stress and negative stimuli.

High N Individuals: Stay angry longer, less likely to forgive, more vigilant to threats, etc.

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19
Q

Psychoticism Narrow Traits + Psychophysiology

A

Narrow Traits: Aggressive, cold, egocentric, antisocial (socially disruptive)… creative
Psychophysiology: Associated with higher testosterone, and lower monoamine oxidase

Controversial: Including creativity as a narrow trait of P

A lot of psychoticism narrow traits are spread out through The Big 5 traits

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20
Q

Hierarchical Structure of Eysenck’s System

A
  • Super trait at the top of the hierarchy
  • Narrower traits at the second level
  • Habitual acts at the third level (eg. sociable at second level, socializing frequently at the third level)
    -At the very lowest (4th) level are specific acts (eg. I raised my hand in class)
  • If enough specific acts are repeated frequently, they become habitual acts (go up to the third level)
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21
Q

The Two Key Biological Underpinnings of Eysenck’s Personality System

A

Heritability: Any personality dimension in Eysenck’s system must have reasonably high heritability
Identifiable physiological substrate: For any personality dimension in Eysenck’s system, one must be able to identify properties in the brain and CNS that can presumably be linked to/be a causal property of this dimension.

Physiological Substrate: Eg. Extraversion associated with CNS arousal/reactivity

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22
Q

Gray’s Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory

List the two hypothesized biological systems in the brain

Also be sure to know the three systems of Gray’s theory

A

Jeffery Gray (1972, 1990)
Model of personality with two hypothesized biological systems in the brain:
1. Responsive to reward (those more sensitive to this were said to be impulsive)
2. Responsive to punishment (those more sensitive to this were said to be anxious)

Three systems (detailed in other flashcards): Behavioural activation system (BAS), Fight-Flight-Freeze System (FFFS), Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS)

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23
Q

Gray’s Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory

Behavioural Activation System (BAS)

A

Brain system responsive to reward, motivates approach behaviours: novelty-seeking, extraversion, etc.
Higher BAS = Higher positive emotion, novelty-seeking, extraversion, etc.

Not sure if this is testable, but some brain regions relevant to this system include: thalamus, cerebral cortex, striatum

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24
Q

Gray’s Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory

Fight–Flight–Freeze System (FFFS)

A

Brain system responsive to negative stimuli, mediates the fear response
Higher FFFS = motivates avoidance behaviours, fear-proneness, phobias

Not sure if this is testable, but some brain regions relevant to this system include: amygdala, anterior cingulate, hypothalamus

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# Gray’s Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS)
Brain system involved in resolving goal conflicts between systems, characterized by anxiety and rumination in order to assess risk, high BIS = risk aversion, neuroticism ## Footnote Not sure if this is testable, but some brain regions relevant to this system include: amygdala, posterior cingulate, hippocampus
26
Wiggins’ Interpersonal Circumplex | Make sure to know the two resources that define social exchange
A circular representation of personality (not a complete taxonomy) focusing on interpersonal traits. There are two resources that define social exchange and are used to form this model of personality, with one dimension on the x-axis, **love** (corresponding to communion) and one on the y-axis, **status** (corresponding to agency). | This model provides a precise definition of interpersonal behaviour ## Footnote Getting ahead versus getting along, so to speak.
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# Wiggins’ Interpersonal Circumplex High Love and Low Love | Traits
High love: Warm, agreeable, nurturing (nurturance) Low love: Hostile, cold-hearted (hostility)
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# Wiggins’ Interpersonal Circumplex High Status and Low Status | Traits
High status: Assured, dominant Low status: Unassured, submissive
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# Wiggins’ Interpersonal Circumplex High status, high love | Traits
Gregarious-extraverted
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# Wiggins’ Interpersonal Circumplex Low status, low love | Traits
Aloof-introverted ## Footnote This model is not without its criticisms, as you could argue introverts are not always aloof
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# Wiggins’ Interpersonal Circumplex High status, low love | Traits
Arrogant-calculating
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# Wiggins’ Interpersonal Circumplex Low status, high love | Traits
Unassuming-ingenuous (‘innocent-seeming’)
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# The "Big Two" - Relevant to Wiggins' Interpersonal Circumplex Agency
Competence, assertiveness; refers to existence of one as an individual, to “getting ahead,” goal-pursuit.
34
# The "Big Two" - Relevant to Wiggins' Interpersonal Circumplex Communion
Warmth, morality; refers to participation of an individual in a larger community, related to "getting along" and forming bonds
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# Wiggins’ Interpersonal Circumplex Adjacency
How close are traits to each other in circumplex
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# Wiggins’ Interpersonal Circumplex Bipolarity
When traits are at opposite sides of the circle/are negatively correlated with one another
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# Wiggins’ Interpersonal Circumplex Orthogonality
Traits that are perpendicular (at right angles) to each other on the model. In essence, the traits are uncorrelated/entirely unrelated to one another. This allows one to specify with precision the different ways in which traits are expressed in actual behaviour.
38
The Five-Factor Model (“Big Five”) | Define the model, list all five traits
The leading personality taxonomy. Consists of: 1. Extraversion 2. Neuroticism 3. Conscientiousness 4. Agreeableness 5. Openness to Experience This model has been independently replicated in numerous studies, countries/cultures, languages, formats, in every decade, thus showing high validity and reliability. Broad “Big Five” traits also have narrow traits that provide nuance. ## Footnote Big Five - Lewis Goldberg (1980) Five-Factor Model - Paul Costa, Robert McCrae (1985) Very similar models with one or two minor differences
39
The two main ways the Big Five are measured
1. Based on self ratings of single-word trait adjectives (talkative, moody, etc.) 2. Using sentence-length item format and asking people how much they relate (typically items from the NEO-PI-R: Neuroticism-Extraversion-Openness Personality Inventory Revised)
40
# Big Five Extraversion Narrow Traits ## Footnote Be able to recall at least two
* Gregariousness * Warmth * Excitement Seeking - similar to Eysenck * Positive Emotions * Activity Level * Assertiveness
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# Big Five Neuroticism Narrow Traits | AKA Emotional Instability ## Footnote Be able to recall at least two
* Prone to negative emotions - less likely to have things ‘roll off their back’ * Anxiety * Depression * Self-consciousness * Vulnerability * Anger/Hostility * Impulsiveness ## Footnote Neuroticism can increase people's empathy for negative emotions, but does not correlate with empathy
42
# Big Five Conscientiousness Narrow Traits ## Footnote Be able to recall at least two
* Competence * Self-discipline * Achievement Striving * Order * Dutifulness * Deliberation (think things through) ## Footnote Conscientiousness is not only related to organization, it’s complicated. It is also related to a sense of responsibility. Example: Activists, people committed to movements
43
# Big Five Agreeableness Narrow Traits ## Footnote Be able to recall at least two
* Cooperative and polite rather than antagonistic and rude * Trust in others (Believe others’ intentions are positive) * Altruism * Tender-mindedness * Compliance (cooperative, avoid conflict) * Modesty * Straightforwardness (but not ‘rude’ honesty) ## Footnote Closest thing we have to empathy in the Big Five. Can have some cons - agreeing to “too much” can be detrimental to a person.
44
# Big Five Openness to Experience Narrow Traits ## Footnote Be able to recall at least two
Broad range of interests, variety over routine, imaginative, intellectually curious, open to new ways of doing things, like to experience different emotions, open minded for values Traits: * Fantasy * Ideas * Aesthetics * Actions * Feelings * Values
45
Hierarchical Organization of Traits | Three Levels
Top of pyramid 1. Broad traits (factors) 2. Narrow traits (traits; facets) 3. Specific behaviours, states, and experiences Bottom of pyramid
46
High Five Model | NOT TESTABLE
Socially desirable expressions of Big Five (not testable) 1. Erudition - High Openness 2. Peace - Low Neuroticism 3. Cheerfulness - High Extraversion 4. Honesty - High Agreeableness 5. Tenacity - High Conscientiousness | NOT TESTABLE
47
Combinations of Big Five Variables
Key to remember that traits examined in combinations are often significantly more insightful than traits examined in isolation. Eg. A person high in extraversion and neuroticism would have different predicted outcomes and be a very different person in general than one high in extraversion and low in neuroticism/high in emotional stability.
48
Big 5 Criticsm
* Fails to capturre the underlying causal processes that interest researchers (what makes someone neurotic and have neurotic thought patterns and behaviours) * Response from Big Five proponents: It's a framework for the phenotypic attributes of personality
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HEXACO | Be sure to be able to name all six factors (overlap with Big 5)
A six factor structure of personality 1. Honesty-Humility 2. Emotionality (includes sentimentality and dependence) 3. E(X)traversion 4. Agreeableness (low anger, not quick to temper) 5. Conscientiousness 6. Opennness to Experience
50
# HEXACO Four facets of the honesty-humility factor
1. Sincerity - Unwilling to lie or be manipulative in order to achieve a goal 2. Fairness - Unwilling to cheat, steal, or take advantage of others 3. Greed Avoidance - Lower concern with wealth/status 4. Modesty - Do not see themselves as better than others/do not believe they deserve special treatment ## Footnote Low honesty-humility is correlated with the Dark Triad and Tetrad.
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# HEXACO Honesty-Humility Narrow Traits ## Footnote Be able to recall at least two
Sincere, honest, faithful, loyal, modest, unassuming, fair-minded
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# HEXACO Emotionality Narrow Traits ## Footnote Be able to recall at least two
Emotional, oversensitive, sentimental, fearful, anxious, vulnerable
53
# HEXACO Agreeableness Narrow Traits ## Footnote Be able to recall at least two
Patient, tolerant, peaceful, mild, agreeable, lenient, gentle ## Footnote Versus ill-tempered, quarrelsome, stubborn, choleric. For HEXACO, remember low agreeableness = low anger, unlike the Big Five, where anger is slotted into Neuroticism.
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# HEXACO Openness Narrow Traits ## Footnote Be able to recall at least two
Intellectual, creative, unconventional, innovative, ironic
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Dark Triad And Tetrad | List the four traits
Triad: 1. Machiavellianism 2. Narcissism 3. (Subclinical) Psychopathy Tetrad: 4. Dispositional Sadism
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# Dark Triad/Tetrad Machiavellianism
People high in Machiavellianism are: cunning, deceptive, exploitative, manipulative; this trait is associated with politicians and white collar crime
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# Dark Triad/Tetrad Narcissism
The tendency towards grandiosity, entitlement, and superiority, with frequent and excessive attention-seeking behaviour. ## Footnote Distinct from Narcissitic Personality Disorder (NPD)
58
# Dark Triad/Tetrad Subclinical Psychopathy
Tendency towards high impulsivity and thrill-seeking behaviour, along with low empathy and anxiety. Associated with selfish and antisocial (socially disruptive) behaviour. ## Footnote Distinct from Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD)
59
# Dark Tetrad Dispositional Sadism
The tendency to gain enjoyment from hurting others (directly or vicariously, like through video games).
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# 3 Traits Light Triad | Don't think this is testable
Kantianism - treating people as means to themselves, as opposed to means to an end Humanism - respecting the dignity and value of every person Faith in Humanity - Believing everyone is fundamentally good ## Footnote Mostly in opposition to the dark triad

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