8. Socialized & Systemized: Personality in Context Flashcards

Question

# Sex Difference Order (Conscientiousness Subtrait)

Answer 1

Women score slightly higher on order

Answer 2

Little to no meaningful differences, but women may score higher on opennness component and men on intellect component. Women also score higher on feelings facet and men on ideas facet. Even in cross cultural analysis.

Answer 3

Women experience a bit/moderately more anxiety and are perceived to be more anxious. This is one of the biggest effect sizes we see in the big five. As for anger/hostility and impulsiveness, findings are inconclusive.

Answer 4

Women (small effect sizes)

Answer 5

Higher in men (small effect size), effect size shows highest discrepancy in late teens

Answer 6

Men more likely to have permissive attitudes toward casual sex and view pornography more frequently. Straight men also tend to have more difficulty being friends with the opposite sex.

Answer 7

Narcissism, low empathy, displays of hostile masculinity (domineering and degrading attitudes toward women)

Answer 8

Higher in women (small/moderate effect size)

Answer 9

According to Little, refers to the nature of vocational interests. Those at the “things” end of the dimension prefer vocations that deal with impersonal tasks—machines, tools, or materials. Those scoring toward the “people” end of the dimension prefer social occupations that involve thinking about others, caring for others, or directing others.

Answer 10

Men are more likely to gravitate toward "things", women "people". Large effect size!

Answer 11

Traits that characterize the cultural roles associated with being male. On traditional measures, masculinity scales contain items reflecting assertiveness, boldness, dominance, self-sufficiency, and instrumentality. Masculinity traits refer to gender roles, as distinct from sex.

Answer 12

Traits that characterize the cultural roles associated with being female. On traditional measures, femininity scales contain traits such as nurturance, empathy, and expression of emotions (e.g., crying when sad). Femininity traits refer to gender roles, as distinct from sex.

Answer 13

Proposed masculinity and femininity were independent from each other in the 1970s. Developed personality instruments to determine masculinity and femininity levels, those high in both were considered androgynous and the most developed and adaptable.

Answer 14

Personality traits that involve working with objects, getting tasks completed in a direct fashion, showing independence from others, and displaying self-sufficiency. ## Footnote Used to be conflated with masculinity (personality instruments)

Answer 15

The ease with which one can express emotions, such as crying, showing empathy for the troubles of others, and showing nurturance to those in need. ## Footnote Used to be conflated with femininity (personality instruments)

Answer 16

Cognitive orientations that lead individuals to process social information on the basis of sex-linked associations. ## Footnote Sex Role Inventory on masculinity and feminity might assess gender schemas, how closely is someone living to gendered expectations?

Answer 17

A type of masculinity that involves traditional and culturally idealized notions of men as successful, self-reliant, socially dominant, tough and competitive, lacking in emotional sensitivity, and fearful or avoidant of appearing or being perceived as feminine. Believed to develop via early (unhealthy) socialization. Increases likelihood of aggressive/antisocial behaviour. ## Footnote Overlaps with toxic masculinity.

Answer 18

A heightened sense of agency in the absence of healthy communion, associated with problems in relationships and psychological well-being. Janet Spence and colleagues (1979) described the negative form of masculinity as unmitigated agency, which is characterized by a focus on the self to the exclusion of others.

Answer 19

A heightened sense of communion and a lack of agency, associated with the subjugation of one’s own needs and an over-dependence on others. Janet Spence and colleagues (1979) described the negative form of femininity as unmitigated communion, which is characterized by a focus on others to the exclusion of the self.

Answer 20

The beliefs and assumptions we hold about men and women.

Answer 21

1. Cognitive (how we form social categories) 2. Affective (Emotional feelings) 3. Behavioural (Behaving differently to someone based on their sex or gender)

Answer 22

The cognitive component that describes the ways individuals classify other people into groups, such as “cads” and “dads.” This cognitive component is one aspect of stereotyping.

Answer 23

Overestimate

Answer 24

Formed/developed when people encounter someone who does not fit their existing fender stereotypes. They view these individuals as "exceptions" to the rule, placing them into separate subcategories, so they can maintain original stereotypes. People also form stereotype subgroups.

Answer 25

They are often evaluated more negatively overall/given social penalties/discriminated against

Answer 26

Discrimination based on overtly negative stereotypes of women as inferior to men. Hostile sexism has been associated with particularly negative evaluations of both men and women who violate traditional gender role expectations. ## Footnote Has connections to toxic masculinity.

Answer 27

According to the American Psychiatric Association’s (APA) current Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5; APA, 2013), gender dysphoriais a condition in which one’s sex or gender assigned at birth causes significant distress or impairment in one or more life domains.

Answer 28

Argues that women and men become different because boys are reinforced by parents, teachers, and the media for being masculine, and girls for being feminine. This is one of the most widely held theories of sex differences in personality.

Answer 29

A general theoretical view emphasizing the ways in which the presence of others influences people’s behaviour, thoughts, or feelings. Often combined with learning principles, the emphasis is on how people acquire beliefs, values, skills, attitudes, and patterns of behaviour through social experiences.

Answer 30

Very often, this is almost as frequent as it was over 40 years ago

Answer 31

Dependency (girls), competitiveness (study of tribal society in India had the difference in genders emerge in pubery), nurturance (girls), sexual restraint (girls)

Answer 32

The idea that protecting a daughter's sexual reputation and mate value may have increased her reproductive success more than that of sons, making the behaviour evolutionarily adaptive.

Answer 33

States that sex differences originate because men and women are distributed differentially into occupational and family roles. Men, for example, are expected to assume the breadwinning role. Women are expected to assume the housewife role. Over time, children presumably learn the behaviours that are linked to these roles. ## Footnote There is some evidence supportng this theory. But, there is also contradicting evidence, as the most gender-egalitarian countries have shown the largest sex differences in personality.

Answer 34

Argue that sex differences in behaviour arise not because of the external social environment but because the sexes have different amounts of specific hormones. It is these physiological differences, not differential social treatment, that causes boys and girls to diverge over development. ## Footnote Evidence: Young girls with congenital adrenal hyperplasia, which produces higher than average levels of prenatal androgens like testosterone, showed a marked preference for male-stereotyped toys (trucks, etc.).

Answer 35

Bidirectional, one affects the other and vice versa

Answer 36

Sex differences in personality are due to different adaptive problems that affected each sex uniquely (e.g. women needing to carry a fetus to reproduce; men only needing a single act of sex to reproduce, thus, men more sexually motivated and women more selective about sex partners2)

Answer 37

Within-group similarities and between-group differences, which can be of any sort—physical, psychological, behavioural, or attitudinal. **Two ingredients are necessary to explain cultural variations: (1) a universal underlying mechanism and (2) environmental differences in the degree to which the underlying mechanism is activated.**

Answer 38

A study that generally has three key goals: (1) to discover the principles underlying the cultural diversity; (2) to discover how human psychology shapes culture; and (3) to discover how cultural understandings in turn shape our psychology (Fiske et al., 1997).

Answer 39

Cultural differences that arise from distinct environmental conditions spurring a predictable set of responses. Environmental Differences -> Cultural Differences

Answer 40

High-variance conditions with food (i.e. you may be lucky one day and unlucky the next) -> Higher cooperation E.g. Ache tribe: Meat is communally shared, gathered food is not shared outside the family Egalitarianism also associated with variance in food supply: High variance = high egalitarianism

Answer 41

- Harsh/inconsistent child-rearing practices -> impulsivity and early mating/reproduction - Stability while child grows up -> Conscientious child who invests in long term partnership as an adult - Evidence of this when examining children from divorced homes - Thus, different cultures -> Different mating strategies

Answer 42

Nisbett proposed that the economic means of subsistence of a culture affects the degree to which the group develops what he calls a culture of honour. In such cultures, insults are viewed as highly offensive public challenges that must be met with direct confrontation and physical aggression. The theory is that differences in the degree to which honour becomes a central part of the culture rest ultimately with economics, and specifically with the manner in which food is obtained. ## Footnote Can a person's means of substinence be rapidly undermined? Or is it stable? The former means the culture will tend to be more aggressive, e.g. in herding economies.

Answer 43

The presence of disease-causing pathogens.

Answer 44

Representations originally in the mind of one or more persons that are transmitted to the minds of other people. Three examples of cultural variants that appear to be forms of transmitted culture are differences in *moral values, self-concept, and levels of self-enhancement*. Specific patterns of morality are specific to certain cultures. These moral values appear to be transmitted from person to person within the culture.

Answer 45

A cultural orientation that focuses on relationships with others, interdependence, and communion, such that the individual is seen as embedded within the group. See also individualism. ## Footnote Associated with communion.

Answer 46

A cultural orientation that focuses on uniqueness, independence, and agency, wherein the individual is seen as separate and distinct from others. See also collectivism. ## Footnote Associated with agency.

Answer 47

1. Value Orientation (what are the person's beliefs on the importance of personal vs. collective/socially-relevant goals) 2. Self-Construal (how much of one's definition of the self is related to others)

Answer 48

An individual’s beliefs about the importance or primacy of personal versus collective (i.e., socially relevant) goals.

Answer 49

The grounds for self-definition; the extent to which the self is defined independently of others or interdependently with others.

Answer 50

According to Markus and Kitayama, one of two “cultural tasks” each person must confront. Interdependence, or communion, involves how you are affiliated with, attached to, or engaged in the larger group of which you are a member. It includes your relationships with other members of the group and your embeddedness within the group.

Answer 51

According to Markus and Kitayama, one of two “cultural tasks” each person must confront. Independence, or agency, involves how you differentiate yourself from the larger group and includes your unique abilities, personal internal motives, and personality dispositions. See also interdependence, the other cultural task.

Answer 52

Individualist Cultures (North America): Use abstract internal characteristics to describe themselves. Also more likely to describe themselves consistently across contexts Collectivistic Cultures (Asia): More often used social roles to describe themselves (e.g. I am X's friend), also more likely to describe themselves differently across contexts

Answer 53

Japanese tend to explain events holistically—looking at context, etc. North Americans tend to explain events analytically—detach the object from its context, assign things to categories, explain behaviour based on categories

Answer 54

After arriving in a new culture, the process of adapting to the ways of life and beliefs common in that new culture.

Answer 55

Yes, for example, Japanese who participated more in American culture had more "American" profiles

Answer 56

A self-concept involving definition of the self within a much broader context, such as the global community, humankind, the planet, or the cosmos. ## Footnote Linked to biospheric value orientation, i.e. the environment is inherently valuable beyond any one species

Answer 57

The tendency to describe and present oneself using positive or socially valued attributes, such as kind, understanding, intelligent, and industrious. Tendencies toward self-enhancement tend to be stable over time, and hence are enduring features of personality (Baumeister, 1997).

Answer 58

It seems most people self-enhance to some degree. However people from collectivistic cultures tend to be more negative in their self-evaluations.

Answer 59

Variations within a particular culture that can arise from several sources, including differences in growing up in various socioeconomic classes, differences in historical era, or differences in the racial context in which one grows up.

Answer 60

North Americans and Europeans score higher. Asians and Africans score lower. ## Footnote Some have questioned the validity of these findings.

Answer 61

Features of personality that are common to everyone in all cultures. These universals constitute the human nature level of analyzing personality and define the elements of personality we share with all or most other people.

Answer 62

1. Beliefs about the personality traits of men and women 2. Expression of emotion 3. The Five Factor model (possibly)

Answer 63

The theory that language creates thought and experience, proposed by Whorf in 1956. According to this hypothesis, the ideas that people can think and the emotions they feel are constrained by the need locate words that happen to exist in their language and culture and with which they use to express them. ## Footnote There is evidence against this.

Answer 64

Very well. Evidence is replicated both for self-report and observer based ratings, across dozens of countries. Howver, openness to experience is defined differently in different cultures. In Dutch, it seems to act like a dimension of political orientation (progressive vs. conservative). In German and Poland, it is described as intelligent and imaginative versus dull and unimaginative. In Hungary, it seemed to be truthfulness. ## Footnote There is also some compelling evidence for the HEXACO model, with honesty-humility.

Answer 65

A personality factor that may be unique to Eastern cultures. It involves traits such as harmony and reciprocity in relationships that are not tapped by conventional measures of the five-factor or Big Five models.