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Pathology and microbiology > 2- Growth disorders, neoplasms > Flashcards

2- Growth disorders, neoplasms Flashcards

1
Q

What are the 8 normal processes of growth and differentiation

A

Environmental influence
Feedback mechanisms
Hormone regulation
Genetic control
Tissue growth
Organogenesis
Cell division
Cell differentiation

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2
Q

Environmental influence and feedback mechanisms

A

Evironmental Influence: External factors such as nutrition, physical activity, and exposure to stimuli can impact growth and differentiation.
Feedback Mechanisms: Feedback loops help maintain homeostasis and regulate growth processes in response to internal and external cues.

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3
Q

Hormone regulation and genetic control function

A

Hormonal Regulation: Hormones play a crucial role in coordinating growth and differentiation processes.
Genetic Control: Gene expression and regulation guide cell differentiation and tissue development.

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4
Q

What is the difference bewteen tissue growth and organogenesis

A

Tissue Growth: Cells proliferate and organize to form tissues with distinct structures and functions.

Organogenesis: Different tissues come together to form complex organs during development.

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5
Q

Cell division and cell differentiation

A

Differentiation- cell develops a specialised function or morphology which distinguishes it from its parent cell and takes on specific functions as tissues and organs develop.

Cell Division: Cells divide and replicate to increase their numbers during growth.

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6
Q

What are the two systemic and local abnormalities of growth

H H

A

hyperplasia and hypotrophy

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7
Q

What is carcinogenesis

A

Carcinogenesis, also called oncogenesis or tumorigenesis, is the formation of a cancer, whereby normal cells are transformed into cancer cells.

Characterized by; changes at the cellular, genetic, and epigenetic levels and abnormal cell division.

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8
Q

What is differentiation

A

cell develops a specialised function or morphology which distinguishes it from its parent cell.

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9
Q

Endocrine
factors in postnatal growth

GH,TH, I, IGFS, SS, C, PTH

A

Postnatal growth is governed by multiple endocrine factors:
Growth Hormone (GH): Secreted by the pituitary gland, it stimulates growth in tissues and bones and promotes the production of insulin-like growth factors (IGFs).
Thyroid Hormones (TH): Produced by the thyroid gland, these hormones are crucial for overall growth and development, including the maturation of the nervous system and bone growth.
Insulin: Produced by the pancreas, it has anabolic effects on muscle and tissue growth, apart from its role in glucose metabolism.
Insulin-like Growth Factors (IGFs): Mostly produced in the liver in response to GH; they are significant mediators of growth in cells and bones.
Sex Steroids: Including testosterone and estrogen, these hormones are responsible for the growth spurt during puberty and the development of secondary sexual characteristics.
Cortisol: A steroid hormone from the adrenal cortex that in high levels can impair growth but is needed in normal levels for tissue maturation and metabolism.
Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) and Vitamin D: These regulate calcium and phosphate metabolism, which is vital for bone growth and maintenance.
The interplay between these hormones ensures proper postnatal growth and development. Imbalances can lead to growth disorders, requiring careful medical attention.

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10
Q

Endocrine factors in foetal growth

A

-Small parents, racial origin and lower foetal insulin or occasionally insulin receptors

  • if increased growth foetal hyperinsulinaemia (Maternal diabetes)
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11
Q

What are the major causes of endocrine abnormality

u/a, o/a, malfunction

A

1) Underproduction of a certain hormone
2) Overproduction of a certain hormone
3) A malfunction in the production line of a hormone or in its ability to function correctly.

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12
Q

What is morphopigenesis

A

a complex process of embryological development
Formation of shape and organisation of body organs
Involves growth, differentiation, and relative movement of groups of cells
Programmed cell death (apoptosis) removes unwanted cells

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13
Q

What is apoptosis and what is it controlled and stimulated by

A

Is a form of programmed cell death.

It is controlled by P53 and other parts. Also, its stimulated by growth factors needed for body processes

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14
Q

What is growth a balance between

A

cell division and apoptosis

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15
Q

What develops last in morphopigenesis

A

Head is one of the last things to develop in morphogenesis

Foetal pancreas and then thyroid develops
- placenta does it is the source for nutrients and removing waste products. Fetal pancreas and thyroid then develop

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16
Q

What is hyperplasia and what process is it controlled by

A

Increase in cell number by mitosis

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17
Q

Hypertrophy is an increase of____ without _____________

A

cell size

cell division

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18
Q

What is atrophy

decrease in

A

Decrease in size or wasting away of a body part or tissue. also : arrested development or loss of a part or organ incidental to the normal development or life of an animal or plant. atrophy.

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19
Q

Example of abnormal tissue growth

A

Benign neoplasms (tumour)
Types:
Benign bone tumors (osteomas).
Brain tumors such as meningiomas and schwannomas.
Gland tumors such as pituitary adenomas.
Lymphatic tumors such as angiomas.
Benign soft tissue tumors such as lipomas.
Uterine fibroids

20
Q

How is cell differentiation controlled

A

Embryonic differentiation of cells is controlled by gene expression, systemic hormones, position within the foetus, local growth factors and matrix proteins.

Maintenance of differentiated state depends upon the persistence of some of these factors.

Differentiation and morphogenesis can be disrupted by environmental factors (e.g. teratogens)

21
Q

Control by the genome

what can a single master gene do

A

A single master gene can switch other genes on and off
example; dolly the sheep- a sheep cloned in America

22
Q

What is aptosis controlled and stimulated by

A

Aptosis controlled by P53 and other parts . Stimulated by growth factors needed fir body processes

23
Q

What is post natal growth controlled by

G

A

GH-IGF-1 axis

24
Q

What is pre natal growth controlled by

MN and HS

A

Maternal nutritional and hormonal state

25
Q

What is hypoplasia

failure of…

A

Failure of development of an organ and morphogenesis

Process is related to atrophy

example; micropthalmia which affects infants and causes diploid/tetraploid
(46:92) chromosome mosaic

26
Q

What is the principle of tetrogrens

A

A teratogen is any agent that causes an abnormality following fetal exposure during pregnancy.

Teratogens are usually discovered after an increased prevalence of a particular birth defect.
For example, in the early 1960’s, a drug known as thalidomide was used to treat morning sickness.

27
Q

What environmental factor can disrupt differentiation and morphopigenesis

What, examples and what they cause

A

Teratogens

Teratogens are substances that cause congenital disorders in a developing embryo or fetus.

Examples- A teratogen is anything a person is exposed to or ingests during pregnancy that’s known to cause fetal abnormalities. Drugs, medicine, chemicals, certain infections and toxic substances are examples of teratogens.

Cause- risk for miscarriage, preterm labor or stillbirth.

28
Q

What is the principle of tetrogenesis

A

Teratogenesis is a process that causes birth defects or malformations in an embryo or foetus.

Susepctibilty of drug induced malformation:

  • genotype of conceptus
  • the developmental stage at which exposure occurs
  • the mechanisms of action of the drug,
  • the access of the drug to developing tissues, and (5) the dose of the drug
29
Q

What are some acquired disorders of growth and differentiation in single tissues

M N D

A

Metaplasia
Dysplasia
Neoplasia (tumours)

30
Q

What is metaplasia

A

-acquired form of altered differentiation
-transformation of one mature differentiated cell type to another
-reversible response to altered cellular environment

31
Q

Metaplasia can undergo further

A

indirect transformation to neoplasm via dysplasia

example; squamous cell carcinoma associated with squamous metaplasia in bronchi (smoker associated)

32
Q

What is dysplasia

A

Causes increased cell growth e.g. more mitoses visible than normal and there is presence of atypical morphology e.g. abnormally large nuceli and decreased differentiation e.g. cellular immaturity

33
Q

Dysplasia lesions are

A

dysplasia lesions are often pre neo-plastic

chronic physical or chemical injury but it can be reversible in the early stages

34
Q

What is neoplasia (tumours)

A

Is characterised by abnormal, uncoordinated and excessive cell growth
it persists after initiating stimulus has been withdrawn

35
Q

What can neoplasia cause

GA

A

genetic alterations
neoplastic cells can influence the behaviour of normal cells by the production of hormones and growth factors

36
Q

Is neoplasia painful

A

It’s not usually painful
But it can be painful if nerves compressed, bone involved

37
Q

Two classifications of neoplasms

L + M

A

location and morphology

38
Q

Benign tumours features

A

-Slow growth rate
-Low mitotic activity
-Good histological resemblance to normal tissue
-Often normal nuclear morphology
-No invasion
-Never metastases
often circumscribed or encapsulated border
-Necrosis is rare
-Ulceration is rare
-Direction of growth on skin or mucosal surfaces is often exophytic

39
Q

Malignant tumours growth and affects

A

-Rapid growth rate
-High mitotic activity
-Variable often poor histological resemblance to normal tissue
-Usually hyperchromatic, irregular outline, multiple nucleoli and pleomorphic nuclear morphology
-Can invade
-Frequent metastases
-Often poorly defined or irregular border
-Necrosis is common
-Ulceration is common on skin or mucosal surfaces
-Direction of growth on skin or mucosal surfaces is often endophytic

40
Q

Metastases process is often

A

fatal and often kills the patient as that causes the cancer to come back

41
Q

Are benign tumours self contained

A

Yes, and malignant tumors aren’t

42
Q

Cancer grading is dependent on

A

The grade of a cancer depends on what the cells look like under a microscope.

Lower grade indicates a slower-growing cancer and a higher grade indicates a faster-growing one.

43
Q

Cancer grading system 1,2,3

A

grade 1 – slow growth and normal cell appearance

grade 2 – fast growth and abnormal cells

grade 3 – aggressive growth and spread, abnormal appearance

44
Q

Oncogenes cause

A

the cancer

45
Q

TS genes suppress

A

cancer development

46
Q

As differentiation decreases

A

malignancy increases

Pathology and microbiology (9 decks)

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