2- Language Variation

Question 1

Variable

Answer 1

Principally an abstract representation of the source of variation. Realized by two or more variants.

Question 2

Variant

Answer 2

The actual realization of a variable. Analogous to the phonetic realizations of the phoneme.

Question 3

Constraint

Answer 3

If the distribution of the variants is neither random nor free, and instead shows systematic correlations with independent factors, those factors can be said to constrain the variation, or to be the constraints on the variable.

Question 4

Constraint

Answer 4

If the distribution of the variants is neither random nor free, and instead shows systematic correlations with independent factors, those factors can be said to constrain the variation, or to be the constraints on the variable.

Question 5

Free variation

Answer 5

The idea that some variants alternate with each other without any reliable constraints on their occurrence in a particular context or by particular speakers.

Question 6

Determinism

Answer 6

The idea that there is a strong causal relationship between two factors (i.e., one determines how the other will be).
The idea that if you know the value for one factor, you can automatically and reliably predict the value for another.

Question 7

Linguistic and non-linguistic factors

Answer 7

The distribution of variants and variables may be constrained by or depend on other factors in the linguistic system.
The distribution may also be constrained by factors that lie outside of the grammar core linguistic system.
Sometimes referred to as ‘internal and ‘external factors, respectively.

Question 8

Accent

Answer 8

Where speakers differ (o vary) at the level of pronunciation only, they have different accents.
Their grammar may be wholly or largely the same.
Accents can index a speaker’s regional origin, or social factors such as level and type of education, or even their attitude.

Question 9

Dialect

Answer 9

A term widely applied to what are considered sub-varieties of a single language.
Generally, dialect and accent are distinguished by how much of the linguistic system differs.
Dialects differ on more than just pronunciation, i.e., on the basis of morphosyntactic structure and/or how semantic relations are mapped onto the syntax.

Question 10

Variety

Answer 10

Relatively neutral term used to refer to languages and dialects.
Avoids the problem of drawing a distinction between the two and avoids negative attitude often attached to the term dialect.

Question 11

Index Score

Answer 11

A means by which scalar variables like raising of a vowel can be converted into quantifiable data. Aggregate scores across all tokens allow the researchers to identify some speakers or groups of speakers as more or less conservative/innovative than others.

Question 12

Envelope variation

Answer 12

All, and only, the contexts in which variable occurs.

Question 13

Synchronic vs diachronic variation

Answer 13

Synchronic variation: Variation occurring now.

Diachronic variation: Change realized over chronological time.

Question 14

Stratisfied

Answer 14

The systematic and consistent patterning of a variant with respect to some independent factor.

Question 15

Monotonic

Answer 15

A steady increase or decrease in a feature along the x-axis of a graph.

Question 16

Trend

Answer 16

Steady increase or decrease in a frequency of a form across a scale or set of measures.

Question 17

Probability

Answer 17

The likelihood with which a variant will occur in a given context, subject to the linguistic and non-linguistic constraints. An adjustment of a raw frequencies of forms.

Question 18

Inherent variability

Answer 18

A way of modelling variation as a property of grammar.
Contrasts with a model of variation as speaker’s (or a speaker’s) alternation between different sound or grammar systems.
Also contrasts with the notion of free variation.
Inherent variability unifies interspeaker and intraspeaker variation in ways that the other two approaches do not.

Question 19

Interspeaker variation

Answer 19

Differences and variation that is measured between different speakers (individuals or social groups).

Question 20

Regional dialectology

Answer 20

The identification and mapping of boundaries between different varieties on the basis of clusters of similar and different features in particular regions towns or villages.

Question 21

Principle of maximum differentiation

Answer 21

An idea that there may be functional constraints on phonological variation preventing the realizations of one phoneme overlapping or encroaching too much on the realizations of another.

Question 22

Reallocate

Answer 22

Reassignment or reanalysis of forms in contact in a systematic way.

Question 23

Intermediate forms

Answer 23

Forms emerging following contact between closely related varieties that fall in between the various input forms.

Question 24

Social dialectology

Answer 24

The study of linguistics variation in a relation to speaker’s participation or membership in social groups, or in relation to other non-linguistic factors.

Question 25

Stereotype

Answer 25

A linguistic feature that is widely recognized and is very often the subject of dialect performances and impressions.

Question 26

Marker

Answer 26

A variable that speakers are less aware of than a stereotype, but which shows consistent style effects.

Question 27

Indicator

Answer 27

A linguist variable which shows limited or no style-shifting. Stratified principally between groups.

Question 28

Speech Community

Answer 28

Variously defined on subjective or objective criteria. Objective criteria would group speakers together in a speech community if the distribution of a variable was consistent which respect to other factors. Subjective criteria would group speakers as a speech community if they shared a sense of and believe in co-membership.

Question 29

Intraspeaker variation

Answer 29

Differences in the way a single person speaks at different times, or different interlocutors, or even within a sentence. Intraspeaker variation is a necessary corollary of inherent variability in grammars.

Question 30

Style-shifting

Answer 30

Variation in an individual’s speech correlating with differences in addressee, social context, personal goals or externally imposed tasks.

Question 31

Attention to speech

Answer 31

Labov proposed that the different distribution of forms in different styles was motivated by the amount of attention the speaker was paying to the act of speaking. In activities such as reading aloud, reading word lists or minimal pairs, Labov argued that speakers are paying more attention to their speech than they are in interviews, and in interviews they pay more attention than when conversing with friends and family. Contrasts with accommodation-based accounts of style-shifting such as audience design. Also contrasts with more agentive theories of style-shifting such as acts of identity.

Question 32

Overt vs covert prestige

Answer 32

Overt prestige: The prestige associated with a variant that speakers are aware of and can talk about in terms of standardness, or aesthetic and moral evaluations like being “nicer” or “better”. Covert prestige: A norm or target that is oriented to without the speaker even being aware that they are orienting to it. Evidence of covert prestige can be found in mismatched between speakers’ self-report of using one variant. Often use (wrongly) to refer to the value associated with non-standard or vernacular varieties.

Question 33

Audience vs speaker design

Answer 33

Audience design: Proposal that intraspeaker variation arises because speakers are paying attention to who they are addressing or who might be listening to or overhearing them and modify their speech accordingly. Derived from accommodation theory. Speaker design: tresses the speaker’s desire to represent themselves in certain ways. A further approach to analyzing style-shifting.

Question 34

Group differentiation

Answer 34

A hypothesized function for language variation. Social (in which we can include regional) varieties index group boundaries. In some theories of social psychology differentiation between groups is argued to be an important basis for forming positive self-image.

Question 35

Motivation

Answer 35

Some linguists believe there are social or psychological factors which drive or motivate variation. Speakers of a language may be able to talk about the different goals, intentions or motivations that are served by using one variant rather than another, but some motivations may be subconscious and not available for such comment.