2. Memory

Question 1

Who created the MSM?

Answer 1

Atkinson and Shiffrin - 1968

Question 2

MSM

Answer 2

A memory model that sees information flowing through a series of sstorage systems

Question 3

Draw MSM

AO1

Answer 3

Question 4

Explain MSM (AO1)

Answer 4

• Begins with sensory register
• SR has a capacity that is large, a duration between 0.5-2s and the coding depends on the sense that is picked up, (each sense has a sub-store, Ex: Echoic store detects auditory information)
• If this information is important we pay attention to it, which transfers it to the STM - If we don’t pay attention to it, then the information decays
• STM has a capacity of 7±2 , (Miller’s magic number), a duration of 18-30s and is coded acoustically
• If this information is important, then we rehearse it, which transfers it to our LTM
• LTM has an unlimited capacity, a duration that lasts a lifetime and the information is coded semantically
• It is also important to note this model sees STM and LTM as being unitary stores

Question 5

Evaluate MSM (AO3)

Answer 5

• Supported by neuroimaging studies by Beardsley and Squire - These studies show that when the STM is being used, our pre-frontal cortex is active and when our LTM is being used the Hippocampus is active - This shows STM and LTM take place at different parts of the brain
• Patient HM
• Patient KF
• The model is criticised for being over-simplified, (for instance, there are three types of LTM but it is shown as a unitary store) –> Compare to WMM
• Most of the studies that support MSM lack ecological validity and mundane realism as the Brown-Peaterson technique which was commonly used is unrealistic to taks people have to carry out in day to day life

Question 6

KF Case Study

Answer 6

• Patient KF was in a motorcycle accident and entered a coma
• Doctors believed he would suffer from brain damage
• Doctors predicted he would be unable to form new STM, but according to the model which says information is passed logically and sequentially, this also means he wouldn’t be able to form LTM
• When he woke up, doctors ran tests which showed his STM was impaired, however, his LTM wasn’t impaired
• Patient KF also tested better on visual short-term memory tasks than verbal tasks, supporting the existance of multiple STM stores, which proves MSM may be oversimplified

Question 7

HM Case Study

Answer 7

• Patient HM had epilepsy and in order to treat it, doctors had to surgically remove his hippocampus
• After surgery, they found HM was able to form new STM but not new LTM, which supports the neuroimaging studies of Beardsley and Squire, as it shows that the STM and LTM formation/usage takes place at different parts of the brain

Question 8

Brown-Peaterson technique

Answer 8

• Presents a triagram to Ps
• Ps are then asked to count backwards by a given number, to prevent rehearsal
• They are then given a signal to recall the triagram

Tests short-term recall, without the use of rehearsal

Question 9

Aim: Baddeley

AO1

Answer 9

To assess whether coding in the STM and LTM is mainly acoustic or semantic

Question 10

Procedure: Baddeley

AO1

Answer 10

• 75 Ps were presented with one of four word lists
• These word lists were repeated four times
• List A = Acoustically similar words - Ex: Cat, Mat and Sat
• List B = Acoustically disimilar words - Ex: Pit, Day and Cow
• List C = Semantically similar words - Ex: Big, Tall and Huge
• List D = Semantically disimilar words - Ex: Hot, Safe and Foul
• To test coding in STM participants were given a list of words in the worng order and were asked to rearrange them into the right order
• To test coding in LTM participants had to do the same procedure, however, they had to do a 20-minute interference task before recall, (this prevented rehearsal)

Question 11

Results: Baddeley

AO1

Answer 11

• For STM participants given List A performed the worst with a recall of only 10%
• For LTM participants given List C performed the worst with a recall of only 55%

Question 12

Conclusion: Baddeley

AO1

Answer 12

• Since List A was recalled least accurately, it means that there was acoustic confusion, suggesting that our STM is coded acoustically
• Since List C was recalled least accurately, it means that there was semantic confusion, suggesting that our LTM is coded semantically

Question 13

Evaluation: Baddeley

AO3

Answer 13

G: Baddeley had a good sample size, meaning that anomalies, (ex: People with a really good or bad memory), will be averaged out, meaning the results are generalisable - However, because there were lots of conditions, there weren’t many Ps in each condition, (only 15 people did the acoustically similar condition), with a sample size this small, there could be anomalies - Those who volunteer are more likely to enjoy taking memory tests and have a better memory which will skew the average
R: Standardised instructions mean that the experiment could be repeated in order to test validity of results
A: Baddeley was able to apply this research into creating a new memory model called the WMM, (which he did with Hitch), this model was seen as being more reliable than MSM
V: The study was carried out in a lab, meaning that it lacked ecological validity - It could also be argued that the fact they had to reorder the lists meant the task lacked mundane realism, as this is not something someone would have to do in day to day life

Question 14

SR

According to MSM

Answer 14

• First store of MSM
• It detects stimuli from our senses
• Capacity = Large
• Duration = 0.5-2s
• Coding = Depends on the sense that is picked up
• Each sense has a sub-store, for example, the echoic store codes auditory information
• A large capacity was proven by Sperling’s study - Outline the study in breif detail

Question 15

STM

According to MSM

Answer 15

• STM is a unitary and passive store
• Capacity = 7±2 - Capacity can be improved through a process known as chunking
• Ex of Chunking: It is easier to remember a 12-word sequence if we break it up into 3 - 4-word sequences
• Duration = 18-30s
• Coding = Acoustic
• Study to support the fact coding is acoustic = Baddeley - When answering questions breifly outline the study and results

Question 16

LTM

According to MSM

Answer 16

• LTM is a unitary store
• Capacity = Unlimited
• Duration = A lifetime
• Coding = Semantic
• Duration is evidenced by the fact that older citizens over the age of 80 can still recall events from their childhood
• Coding is evidenced by the Baddeley study, which should be outlined if asked about LTM in a 4 or 6 marker
• Although LTM has an unlimited capacity, we do sometimes forget information, however, this is not due to the capacity of our LTM

Question 17

**

Chunking

Answer 17

A method of increasing the capacity of our STM by grouping items together

Question 18

Breifly outline Sperling’s study

Answer 18

• 3x4 grid of letters were shown to Ps for 50 milliseconds
• Ps then listend to different tones, which indicated which row they had to recall
• Some Ps were asked to recall the whole grid
• Recall of letters when a row was indicatede at random was high, which suggests all entire grid was stored in our sensory register
• However, because it has such a short duration, sometimes the grid faded before Ps could finish recall
• This indicated the capacity for the sensory register is large

Question 19

Who created the WMM?

Answer 19

Baddeley and Hitch - 1974

Question 20

WMM

Answer 20

An explanation of working memory that sees STM as being an active store that can hold multiple peices of information simultaneously

Question 21

Draw WMM

AO1

Answer 21

Question 22

Explain WMM (AO1)

Answer 22

• Concept of the model stems from the dual-task effect
• Model begins with CE
• CE allocates attention towards different slaves systems as well as deciding which information detected by the sense organs needs tending to
• The first of these slave systems is the PL
• PL’s main job is to deal with auditory information
• PL is further divided into the articulatory process and the primary acoustic store
• Articulatory process silently repeats this information which is then stored in the primary acoustic store
• Next slave system is the visuo-spatial sketchpad
• The main job of this system is to deal with visual and spatial information
• It is further divided into the visual cache and the inner-scribe - The visual cache deals with visual information and the inner-scribe deals with spatial information regarding layouts/arrangements of items
• Final slave system was actually added by Baddeley in 2000 - This is known as the episodic buffer
• The episodic buffer combines information from all the senses to create a general scene of an event
• This information is then transfered and stored in the long-term memory, in the form of an episodic memory

Question 23

Evaluate WMM (AO3)

Evidence

Answer 23

• Supported by Patient KF - Who’s auditory STM was more impacted than visual STM, supporting evidence for multiple working memory stores + Evidence for PL & VSS
• Baddeley and Gathercole dual task study is also a strength, as it provides evidence for WMM
• Neuroimaging studies also support WMM - When carrying out auditory tasks that would use our PL our temporal lobe is active - However, when doing visual tasks that would use our VSS our occipital lobe is active, supporting idea of multiple stores and suggests that working memory is not a unitary store

Question 24

PL

Answer 24

• Temporary store with a limited capacity
• The PL’s main job is to deal with auditory information
• Comprised of articulatory process and primary acoustic store
• Articulatory process silently repeats information
• Primary acoustic store then stores this information

Question 25

VSS (Inner Eye)

Answer 25

• Temporary store with a limited capacity
• The VSS’ main job isto deal with visual and spatial information
• Comprised of visual cache and inner-scribe
• Visual cache deals with visual information
• Inner-scribe deals with information regarding the layout/arrangement of items

Question 26

CE

Answer 26

• Filters out important information that is detected from sense organs and allocates attention to different slave systems
• No capacity as it doesn’t store information
• However, the CE has a limited attention capacity

Question 27

What are the three different types of LTM?

Answer 27

1. Semantic memory
2. Episodic memory
3. Procedural memory

Question 28

Semantic memory

Answer 28

Type of LTM which stores information based on facts and other concept-based knowledge, (Ex: The fact that the capital of France is Paris)

Memories are declarative, which means they can be consciously recalled

Question 29

Episodic memory

Answer 29

Type of LTM which stores information about events we have actually experienced and it combines information from our 5 senses

Memories are declarative, which means they can be consciously recalled

Question 30

Procedural memory

Answer 30

Stores information about how to do things, (Ex: Play the piano)

Memories are not declarative, meaning they cannot be consciously recalled

Question 31

Evaluate WMM (AO3)

Application

Answer 31

Can be applied to ‘multi-tasking’ and why we cannot always ‘multi-task’ when the tasks use the same slave system as it may become overloaded or the CE may not be able to allocate enough attention to the slave system as the CE only has a limited attention capacity

Question 32

Evaluate WMM (AO3)

Limitations

Answer 32

• The central executive lacks falsifiability, as it cannot be scientifically tested. Some psychologists argue the CE is made up of multiple different cognitive processes, such as: planning, attention and response inhibition - This would mean that there could potentially be more than 1 CE as these processes take place in different parts of the brain.
• Another limitation is that the studies used to support this memory model lack ecological validity and the tasks used can sometimes lack mundane realism, meaning the findings of these experiments may not be able to be extrapolated to real life.
• Finally, WMM is not a comprehensive memory model, as it only includes working memory, not sensory memory or long-term memory

Question 33

Coding

Answer 33

Refers to the way different memory stores convert information into a suitable format, so it can be stored in our brains

Question 34

Capacity

Answer 34

Refers to the maximum amount of information each memory store can hold

Question 35

Duration

Answer 35

Refers to the length of time a memory is stored in a specific memory store

Question 36

What are the two explanations for forgetting?

Answer 36

• Interference theory
• Cue-dependent forgetting theory

Question 37

Interference theory

Answer 37

Explanation of forgetting when similar material is confused in recall from our LTM

Question 38

Proactive interference

Answer 38

Older information, learnt previosuly, interfers with our ability to store new information

Question 39

Example of proactive interference

Answer 39

• A Psychology teacher had an old student named Freddie and a new student named Eddie
• He keeps calling Eddie; Freddie by mistake as the older information that is similar, has affected his ability to store new information

Question 40

Retroactive interference

Answer 40

New information learnt interferes with our ability to recall older information that had been previously learnt

Question 41

Example of retroactive interference

Answer 41

An economics teacher cannot remember the names of students from his old class as he is now teaching a new class

Question 42

Evaluate proactive interference - Evidence

Breif ARC

Answer 42

Underwood (1957) - Proactive Interference
A: To investigate the effects of learning multiple word lists on Ps ability to recall the one they most recently learned, 24 hours after doing so
R: Those who had learnt more word lists, struggled to recall the most recent list 24 hours later - Those who only learnt one word list, were 80% accurate with their recall
C: When Ps had to learn multiple word lists, the earlier word lists learnt, interfered with the recall of the later word lists

Question 43

Evaluate retroactive interference - Evidence

Brief APRC

Answer 43

Underwood & Potsman (1960) - Retroactive Interference
A: To investigate if Ps recall of a previously learnt word list, would be effected, by learning a new similar word list
P: Lab experiment. Ps were divided into two groups. Ps were asked to learn a list of words in pairs. The control group, only had to learn the first list. The experimental group had to learn a second word list afterwoods. With the first word being the same. Ex: In List 1, a word pair may have been cat-dirt. In List 2, a word pair may have been cat-tunnel. Both groups were then asked to recall the first word list.
R: The control group, (who only had to learn one list), performed far better with recall than the experimental group
C: Reason why experimental group struggled to remember first word list, was because of the first word in the pair was the same on both lists

Question 44

Evaluate interference theory - Limiations of the Evidence

Answer 44

• Underwood and Potsman’s study was carried out in a lab, meaning it lacks ecological validity - The task could also be said to lack mundane realism, as learning and recalling multiple similar word lists, is not an ordinary day to day task

COUNTER ARGUEMENT: This allowed Underwood and Potsman to control extraneous variables, which helped establish a cause and effect relationship

Question 45

Evaluate interference theory - Limiation

Answer 45

• Only explains forgetting when information is similar
• Can’t explain why forgetting occurs in the majority of real life situations - Limited application
• Also forgetting due to similarities doesn’t happen that often, suggesting intereference theory is one component of a bigger explanation - And that it is also oversimplified
• The fact that there is evidence for cue-dependent forgetting, demonstrates that there are other explanations for forgetting