2. Preliminaries to prosecution Flashcards
1
Q
What are the PACE Codes of practice?
A
PACE codes of practice regulate the investigatory powers of the police.
2
Q
What is PACE?
A
Pace is the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 which largely regulates powers of the police.
3
Q
What will happen if the codes are not complied with?
A
- Fail to comply will not straight away result in liability to civil/criminal proceedings.
- Codes are admissible in evidence, however.
- Therefore, there may be consequences such as to evidence admissibility gathered during the investigation.
4
Q
Definition of an interview
A
Questioning of a person regarding their involvement or suspected involvement in a criminal offence(s) which, under para 10.1 of CODE C, must be carried out under caution.
Where no caution is required, it will not be an interview.
Even if the person has not been arrested, it will count as an interview.
Furthermore, a caution must be given if the person is questioned about an offence other than which they have been arrested if there are grounds to suspect a person of it.
5
Q
Where should an interview take place?
A
Generally, a police station.
This is not so where delay would likely:
a. lead to interference with or harm to evidence connected with an offence, interference with or harm to other persons, or serious loss of or damage to property.
b. lead to the alerting of other persons suspected of having committed an offence but not yet arrested for it.
c. hinder the recovery of of property obtained in consequence of the commission of an offence
Interviewing in these circumstances must cease if the risk has been averted.
6
Q
Can suspects be interviewed via live link?
A
Yes, but that officer has the same duties under PACE as an officer who is there.
7
Q
When does a caution need to be administered?
A
When there are grounds for suspecting a person to have committed a criminal offence.
- At arrest.
- At commencement of interview.
- At recommencement of interview.
8
Q
When are there grounds for suspecting a person to have committed a criminal offence?
A
There must be some reasonable, objective grounds for the suspicion, based on known facts or information.
This is an objective question.
Where officers are unaware of a law that may give rise to a suspicion, they are taken to not have one.
9
Q
When does a caution not have to be administered?
A
Questioning:
- Solely to establish identity/ownership of a vehicle
- To obtain information in accordance with a statutory requirement
- In furtherance of the proper and effective conduct of a search
- To seek verification of a written record of comments made by a person outside of interview.
10
Q
What are the words of the caution?
A
You do not have to say anything. But it may harm your defence if you do not mention when questioned something which you later rely on in Court. Anything you do say may be given in evidence.
11
Q
Does the caution need to be perfect?
A
No, so long as the essence of the caution is kept. The officer can explain in their own words.
12
Q
What is the consequence of a breach of the requirement to caution?
A
Evidence might be excluded.
13
Q
What are the words of the alternaltive caution, and why would this be issued?
A
You do not have to say anything, but anythign you do say may be given in evidence.
This is for where:
- A suspect is interviewed after charge.
- The suspect has requested a solicitor but has not been permitted to see one.
This is because there will be no ability to draw an inference.
14
Q
What must happen before an interview?
A
- Suspect is cautioned.
- Them and their legal advisor should be given sufficient information to allow them to understand the nature of the suspected offence and why they are suspected.
- The suspect must be told before an interview, and at recommencement, about their right to legal advice (except where solicitor is delayed or one of the exceptions apply).
15
Q
Who decides what to disclose to the suspect and their advisor?
A
The investigating officer.
16
Q
Must a record be kept about what and when it was disclosed for an interview?
A
Yes, the investigating officer must keep this record of what and when disclosures were made.
17
Q
When must a suspect be told about their right to legal advice?
A
The suspect must be told before an interview, and at recommencement, about their right to legal advice (except where solicitor is delayed or one of the exceptions apply).
18
Q
What is a consequence of the failure to inform the suspect of their right to legal advice?
A
Potentially exclusion of evidence.
19
Q
When should a suspect be given a special warning?
A
- They are asked to account for an object, mark, substance, or mark on objects found on their person/clothing, in their possession, or in the place of arrest.
- They are asked to account for their presence at the place of arrest.
This does not apply to situations where no inference can be drawn.
Suspects interviewed at station/authorised detention place post arrest
20
Q
What is a significant statement?
A
A statement which is capable of being used in evidence.
21
Q
What is a significant silence?
A
Silences which give rise to inferences.
22
Q
What must the interviewing officer do in relation to significant statements/silences?
A
He must put to the suspect any of these.
23
Q
What restrictions on the conduct of interviewers are there?
A
- Oppressive tactics are not allowed.
- No indication can be made, except in answer to a direct question, the proposed action an officer may take with/without an answer.
- No confession should be sought by offering a caution.
Hypothetical questions are acceptable, though care should be taken.
There is also a positive duty on the police to not actively mislead the suspect.
24
Q
When must interviews cease?
A
In respect of a person not charged/informed they may be prosecuted when the officer is satisfied that all relevant questions have been put, account has been made of other available evidence, and the officer reasonably believes there is sufficient evidence to obtain a conviction.
Furthermore, subject to the length of the time detained and restrictions on breaks.
These provisions being met does not preclude a formal question and answer document for POCA proceedings.
25
What restrictions on recording what suspects say are there?
All interviews must normally be contemporaneously recorded.
Any comment made outside of interview must be recorded and the suspect given the opportunity to verify the record.
26
What happens if officers do not comply with the recording provisions.
Evidence may be excluded.
27
How should interviews be recorded?
Via an authorised recording device, or sometimes in writing.
28
When must a child/young person/mentally disordered/vulnerable person NOT be interviewed/asked to sign a statement?
In the absence of an appropriate adult unless the conditions for conducting an interview away from a police state are satisfied or the interview is authorised by an officer of the rank of superintendent or above under Code C.
29
Can a child be interviewed at school?
Only in exceptional circumstances and then only if the principal or principal’s nominee agrees.
Efforts should be made to contact the parents or appropriate adult.
In cases of necessity, and that the school is not the victim, the principal may act as the appropriate adult.
The appropriate adult is to be reminded of his or her functions as adviser and observer as well as that of facilitating communication with the person being interviewed.
30
Is judicial consent required before interviewing a ward of court?
No.
31
When can a person needing an interpreter be interviewed without one?
Where an officer of superindentent or above authorises this, being satisfied that delaying the interview would lead to:
a. lead to interference with or harm to evidence connected with an offence, interference with or harm to other persons, or serious loss of or damage to property.
b. lead to the alerting of other persons suspected of having committed an offence but not yet arrested for it.
c. hinder the recovery of of property obtained in consequence of the commission of an offence
and that the interview would not significantly harm the persons physical or mental state.
and that the interview would not significantly harm the persons physical or mental state.
32
Does an interpreter need to be physically present?
No, if the custody officer is satisfied that this would not adversely affect or otherwise undermine or limit the suspect’s ability to communicate effectively and confidently.
33
What must happen when a suspect is interviewed and the record kept in writing, and the suspect themselves is unable to read?
The record must be read over to the suspect who must be asked to verify it.
34
When can a person unable to appreciate the significance of their questions and answers, or to understand what is happening because of the effects of drink, drugs, or any illness/ailment/condition be interviewed?
Where an officer of superindentent or above authorises this, being satisfied that delaying the interview would lead to:
a. lead to interference with or harm to evidence connected with an offence, interference with or harm to other persons, or serious loss of or damage to property.
b. lead to the alerting of other persons suspected of having committed an offence but not yet arrested for it.
c. hinder the recovery of of property obtained in consequence of the commission of an offence
and that the interview would not significantly harm the persons physical or mental state.
35
When may a constable arrest someone without a warrant?
(1) the person arrested is about to commit, is committing or has committed an offence or (2) the police officer has reasonable grounds for suspecting this to be so, provided in every case that the arresting officer has reasonable grounds for believing that the arrest is necessary to:
(a) allow prompt and effective investigation of the offence
(b) ascertain person’s name or address
(c) prevent person from causing/suffering injury, causing loss/damage to property etc.
(d) protect a child or vulnerable person;
(e) prevent P from being hindered by disappearance of person
36
What does reasonable suspicion mean in relation to a power of arrest?
Defined in case law that reasonable suspicion requires the constable actually suspects (subjective) and that a reasonable person in possession of the same facts would also suspect (objective).
An officer who reasonably but mistakenly proceeds on a wrong view of the law does not have reasonable suspicion.
The arrest must also be Wednesbury reasonable.
The constable must reasonably suspect the existence of facts amounting to some form of offence in mind.
37
When does it count as someone being under arrest?
a. The person is arrest if, as a result of what is said or done, the person is under compulsion and is not free to go.
b. The second approach is that context or purpose are relevant. In Austin v MPC 2009 [UKHL] 5, the HOL distinguished between deprivation of liberty and a restriction on movement. The difference between the two is a matter of degree and intensity and is fact sensitive.
38
What must the officer also do at time of arrest to ensure it is lawful?
(1) Inform the suspect of the fact they have been arrested (even if obvious they have)
(2) Inform the suspect of the ground of arrest as soon as is practicable
The suspect must also be informed of the necessity for arrest, though failure to do so will not render the arrest unlawful.
Test for whether the words used were sufficient = whether, having regard to all the circumstances of the case, the person arrested was told, in simple, non-technical language that the person could understand, the essential legal and factual grounds for the arrest.
The words used, even if applicable to more than one offence, will suffice so long as they aptly describe the offence for which the arrest is made.
While he must be cautioned, failure to caution will not make the arrest unlawful.
39
Where no reasons are given at the time of arrest because of impracticability, do acts done at time of arrest later become invalid because of a later failure to inform the suspect?
No.
40
What must be recorded when arresting someone? When must this be done?
The nature and circumstances of the offence leading to the arrest, the reason(s) why the arrest was necessary, the giving of the caution, and anything said by the arrested person at the time of arrest must be recorded by the arresting officer in the officer's pocket book or other method used for recording information.
This record must be made at the time of the arrest unless impracticable, in which case it must be completed as soon as possible thereafter.
41
What must be attached to the custody record?
If the arrested person is subsequently detained at a police station, the information given by the arresting officer as to the circumstances and reason(s) for the arrest must be recorded in, or attached to, the custody record.
42
Where must the suspect be taken after arrest?
Where a person is arrested at a place other than a police station, the constable is normally obliged to take them to a designated police station as soon as is practicable (PACE s.30).
In exceptional circumstances, they may be taken to a non-designated police station.
43
May an officer delay taking the suspect to a police station?
Yes, if the persons presence is needed elsewhere in order to carry out such investigations that it is reasonable to carry out immediately, but the reasons must be recorded.
These reasons may include:
a. Taking a person to check an alibi
b. Search of the arrested person
c. Entry and search of premises
Furthermore, he also can be released either without bail or on bail, to attend at a later date.
44
When can an officer give police bail?
a person who is arrested or taken into custody if the constable is satisfied that releasing the person on bail is necessary and proportionate in all the circumstances.
Any decision to release on bail must be authorised by a custody officer.
45
Where may conditions be imposed upon someone for police bail?
If the person is released on bail, conditions may be imposed for the purpose of securing surrender, preventing further offences, preventing interference with witnesses or obstruction of the administration of justice, or for the person's own protection.
46
How can someone vary police bail conditions?
An application to vary conditions may be made to the police and, thereafter, to a magistrates' court
47
What type of force can an officer use for the exercise of a power (like arrest) where no other person's consent is required?
Reasonable force, if necessary, in the exercise of that power.
48
How does a court determine whether force is reasonable?
a. The nature and degree of force used
b. The gravity of the offence
c. The harm that would flow from use of force
d. And the possibility of effecting the arrest or preventing harm by other means
49
When can handcuffs be used?
Where they are reasonably necessary to prevent an escape or prevent a violent breach of peace by a prisoner.
50
Who bears the burden for proving an arrest was lawful?
The police.
51
Who bears the burden for proving excessive force in a lawful arrest?
The complainant.
52
When can arrest for a breach of the peace be made?
By any person where:
(a) a breach of the peace is committed in the person’s presence,
(b) the person effecting the rest reasonably believes such a breach will be committed in the immediate future, or
(c) a breach has been committed/the person reasonably believes such a breach has occurred and that there is a threat of another.
The arrest must be for the purpose of bringing the person before a competent legal authority.
53
When does a breach of the peace occur?
'whenever harm is actually done or is likely to be done to a person or in his presence to his property, or a person is in fear of being so harmed through an assault, affray, riot, unlawful assembly or other disturbance'.
54
What constitutes a reasonable belief for arrest?
The court must determine whether the belief was reasonable having regard to the circumstances as perceived by the person carrying out the arrest at the time.
55
Where someone is arrested in prevention of a breach of the peace, what must the action taken be?
Reasonable, necessary and proportionate.
56
Can you arrest for breach of the peace for lawful conduct?
Yes, in exceptional circumstances.
57
When can a justice issue a warrant?
On the basis of a written information substantiated on oath that a person has, or is suspected of having, committed an offence.
The offence must be indictable, or punishable with imprisonment, or the person’s address must not be sufficiently established for a summons to be served.
A warrant to arrest any person for non-appearance before a magistrates' court must not be issued unless the offence to which the warrant relates is also punishable with imprisonment or where the court, having convicted the defendant, proposes to impose a disqualification.
For private prosecutions, a warrant must not be issued without consent of the DPP.
A warrant can be issued for the arrest of a person who has failed to answer a summons or who has failed to answer bail.
58
Can a warrant be backed for bail?
If endorsed for bail, the warrant will (if relevant) specify the amount in which any sureties are to be bound.
If bail is to be granted with sureties, the police must release the offender if the sureties approved by the officer enter into recognizances in accordance with the endorsement. The person then bailed is obliged to attend the court at the time and place named in the recognizance.
59
When can the Crown Court issue a warrant?
Where an indictment has been signed but the person charged has not been sent for trial, the Crown Court may issue a summons requiring that person to appear before it or may issue an arrest warrant.
Failure to appear.
A similar power applies where a person charged with or convicted of an offence has entered into a recognizance to appear at the Crown Court and fails to do so.
60
May a Crown Court warrant be backed for bail?
A warrant for arrest may be endorsed for bail, in which case the officer in charge of the police station to which D is taken has the same powers and duties as in the parallel case where the warrant is issued by magistrates.
61
What counts as someone being in police detention?
if the person has been taken to a police station after being arrested for an offence or under the Terrorism Act 2000 s41 or has been arrested at a police station after attending voluntarily or accompanying a constable, and is detained there or elsewhere in the charge of a constable. Furthermore, so is a person if they are in custody at a designated civillian detention, investigating or escort officer.
Being in court after charged is not police detention, neither is a person attending a station to answer live link bail.
62
How many custody officers should there be at a station, and what rank at least?
1 or more and sergeant.
63
Can another officer perform the role of custody officer?
Yes, if a custody officer is not readily available so long as they are not involved in the investigation of an offence for which the person is in detention.
64
On whose authority is a person detained and released at a police station?
The custody officer.
65
Whose responsibility is it to ensure that a person is treated in accordance with PACE?
The custody officer and any person to whom custody is transferred temporarily.
66
When must a custody record be opened?
When someone is brought to or arrested at a police station, or who attends the police station in accordance with police bail.
67
What rights of notification do suspects have?
To have one friend/ relative/other person known to him/her who will have an interest in their welfare, told of the arrest and place of detention as soon as is practicable.
The custody officer must inform the suspect of this right.
This must be done on each occasion the detainee is taken to a different station.
The suspect has a right to choose two alternaltives.
If they also cannot be contacted, the custody officer has discretion to allow further attempts.
The custody officer can bear in mind local voluntary organisations if the suspect has no one else to inform.
68
What right does a person arrested and held in custody have in relation to a solicitor?
To consult privately at any time.
69
What does held in custody mean?
'Held in custody' has been given a more restricted meaning than simply 'in custody' and describes the situation where a custody officer has made a decision that the person should be detained.
Furthermore, the right to legal assistance may apply prior to the decision to detain a person at a police station, and even before the person has been formally arrested.
70
Who does this right to a solicitor apply to?
The right applies to all persons held in custody including those who are children or young persons, or mentally disordered or vulnerable.
An appropriate adult has an independent right to legal advice even if the child or young person or vulnerable adult does not want one.
71
When must the person be told of the right to a solicitor?
brought to a police station under arrest, or when arrested having initially attended voluntarily;
b. immediately before the beginning or recommencement of any interview at a police station or other authorised place of detention
c. before a review of detention is conducted or before a decision is made whether to extend the period of detention
d. after charge or being informed that the person may be prosecuted, where a police officer wishes to bring to the person's attention any statement or the content of any interview, or where the person is re-interviewed
e. before being asked to provide an intimate sample; before an intimate drug search is conducted under the PACE 1984, or an x-ray or ultrasound scan is taken u
f. before the person is (exceptionally) interviewed after charge
g. and before an identification parade or group or video identification is conducted
72
Who qualifies as a 'juvenile'?
Anyone who appears to be under 18.
73
Do the police have extra duties to children?
The police are required to take into account the need to safeguard and promote the welfare of children in discharging their functions, but do not have additional obligations.
74
When should a person be treated as having a mental disorder/vulnerability?
If an officer has any reason to suspect that a person of any age may be vulnerable, in the absence of clear evidence to dispel that suspicion, the person must be treated as such.
75
Must a custody officer take steps to establish whether someone is vulnerable/has a mental disorder?
Yes.
It has been held that suspicion may be dispelled following examination by a forensic medical officer.
76
What must happen to someone who is mentally disordered/vulnerable?
They must be assessed as soon as possible.
(a) before deciding to remove a person to, or to keep a person at, a place of safety, a constable must, if practicable, consult a registered medical practitioner, registered nurse, approved mental health practitioner, or a person of a description specified in regulations made by the Secretary of State;
(b) a child cannot be detained in a police cell as a place of safety; and
(c) the maximum period that a person can be detained at a police station is reduced from 72 hours to 24 hours, which may be extended by 12 hours where authorised by the responsible medical practitioner.
a police station may only be used as a place of safety in respect of an adult where the relevant decision-maker is satisfied that:
(a) the behaviour of the person poses an imminent risk of serious injury or death to him or herself or another;
(b) because of that risk, no place of safety other than a police station can reasonably be expected to detain the person; and
(c) the requirement in reg. 4(1)(b) (so far as reasonably practicable, a healthcare professional is present and available to the detained person throughout the period of detention at the police station) will be met.
77
What is an appropriate adult in respect of a child?
A parent or guardian or, if the child or young person is in the care of a local authority or voluntary organisation, a person representing that authority or organisation, a social worker of a local authority.
Failing these, some other responsible person who is not a police officer, employed by the police, under the direction or control of a chief police officer, or a person who provides services under contractual arrangements (but without being employed by the chief police officer) to assist that force in relation to the discharge of its chief officer's functions.
78
Can an estranged parent be used as an appropriate adult?
Not if the young person does not wish that.
79
Where should a parent not act as an appropriate adult?
Where the parents is illiterate with a low IQ who cannot appreciate the gravity of the situation in which his or her child is placed.
80
What is an appropriate adult in respect of a person mentally disordered or vulnerable?
A relative, guardian or other person responsible for care or custody of the person, someone who has experience of dealing with such persons (but who is not a police officer or police employee) or, failing these, some other responsible adult aged 18 years or older who is not a police officer or police employee.
81
Can a solicitor attending on a suspect's behalf be an appropriate adult?
No.
82
Where should a person not act as an appropriate adult?
Where they are (a) suspected of involvement in the suspected offence, (b) are the victim or a witness, (c) are involved in the investigation, or (d) has received admissions from the suspect before acting as the appropriate adult.
83
What is the role of an appropriate adult?
The role of the appropriate adult is to safeguard the rights, entitlements and welfare of children and vulnerable persons.
Among other things, appropriate adults are expected to
(a) support, advise and assist detainees when they are given or asked to provide information or participate in any procedure;
(b) observe whether the police are acting properly and fairly, and to inform an officer of the rank of inspector or above if they consider that they are not;
(c) assist detainees to communicate with the police while respecting their right to say nothing unless they want to; and
(d) help them to understand their rights and ensure that those rights are protected and respected.
84
What must the police not do without an appropriate adult in cases where it is required?
Generally, a child or young person or mentally disordered or vulnerable person must not be interviewed by the police or asked to provide a written statement in the absence of an appropriate adult, unless delay would be likely to lead to interference with or harm to evidence connected with an offence, interference with or physical harm to other people or serious loss of or damage to property, to alerting other suspects not yet arrested, or to hindering the recovery of property obtained in consequence of commission of the offence.
If an interview at a police station is necessary for one or more of these reasons, it must be authorised by an officer of the rank of superintendent or above.
85
When, and who from, must consent be sought when police conduct evidential and identification procedures that require consent?
In the case of identification and other evidential procedures that require 'appropriate consent', the PACE 1984, s. 65(1), provides that, in the case of a person who has attained the age of 14 years but is under 18 years, consent is required from the young person and his or her parent or guardian, but that, in the case of a person under 14 years, only the consent of the parent or guardian is required. If the appropriate adult is not a parent or guardian, he or she cannot give consent.
86
What is the standard period of detention without charge?
24 hours from the relevant time.
If the time expires, he must be released.
87
When may the period of detention be extended?
The period of detention without charge may be extended in respect of a person under arrest for an indictable offence:
for up to a total of 36 hours from the relevant time by an officer of the rank of superintendent or above;
and for up to a total of 96 hours from the relevant time by a magistrates' court.
88
Can a suspect be re-arrested where a detention time-limit has expired?
Not without a warrant for the offence for which the person was previously arrested unless, since the release, new evidence has come to light or an examination or analysis of existing evidence has been made which could not reasonably have been made before
89
How to calculate when to release?
Time normally runs continuously from the relevant time, except where a detainee is removed to hospital for medical treatment, time spent at the hospital or travelling to or from hospital does not count, except for any time spent questioning the person for the purpose of obtaining evidence in respect of an offence
90
Can a person in police detention at hospital be questioned?
A person in police detention at a hospital must not be questioned without the agreement of a responsible doctor. If a person is questioned in these circumstances, the person is entitled to consult a solicitor.
Note that the term 'medical treatment' does not require treatment to be administered and is wide enough to encompass psychiatric and psychological interview/examination.
91
When does the normal period not apply?
Where a person released on police bail is detained when attending at the police station to surrender to custody, or is arrested under s. 46A for failure to surrender to custody, the relevant time is that which applies to the original detention; however, any time during which the person was on bail is not included
92
What are the DPP, the CPS, Crown Prosecutors, and Associate Prosecutors?
The CPS takes over prosecutions begun by the police.
The DPP is the head of the CPS (a barrister of at least 10 years call).
The Crown Prosecutors are CPS personnel that exercise the DPP’s powers even without express instructions from the DPP (i.e. they’re basically barristers employed by the CPS).
Associate prosecutors are non-legally qualified CPS staff. They can represent the CPS on bail applications and on other pre-trial applications, e.g. adjournments. Can conduct trials but only where the offence in question is a non-imprisonable summary offence.
93
How can criminal proceedings be commenced?
(1) A person can be charged if they have been arrested and are - at the time of charge - at the police station
(2) Written Charge and Requisition
(3) Issue of a summons or arrest warrant (i.e. ‘laying an information’)
94
What is the written charge and requisition procedure?
A ‘relevant prosecutor’ can institute criminal proceedings by issuing a ‘written charge’.
Where the prosecutor does so, they must issue a ‘requisition’ at the same time - this requires the accused to appear before a magistrates’ court to answer the written charge
Both docs must be served on the court and the accused
95
When would proceedings be instituted by issuing a summons/arrest warrant and what rules apply?
Applies mostly to private prosecutions, because the ‘written charge and requisition’ procedure is only available to ‘relevant prosecutors’
This has also historically been called ‘laying an information’
(1) The application
A prosecutor who wants the court to issue a summons must either serve a written application on the court, or present an application orally to the court (but with a written record of the allegation(s) made by the prosecutor)
Content: (a) set out the allegation(s) made by the applicant in ordinary language (needs to give all important info, e.g. relevant legislation, damage caused by alleged offence), and (b) if there is a time-limit for prosecution of the offence(s), demonstrate that the application is made in time.
(2) The Summons/Warrant
Court can either issue a summons or an arrest warrant
Summons must set out when and where the accused has to attend court and must also specify each offence in respect of which it has been issued
(3) Time Limit
Mags can only try an accused for a summary offence if the application for a summons was served on the magistrates’ court within six months of the time when the offence was allegedly committed
96
Is there a time limit for EW or indictable offences?
No
97
What is time time limit for summary offences?
6 months from commission of the alleged offence
The written charge can be regarded as issued only when the document comprising the written charge is completed, with all relevant details and in the form needed for service. Provided that is done within six months of the relevant offence, the written charge will have been issued in time.
98
Who are ‘relevant prosecutors’ for the written charge and requisition procedure?
The police, the CPS, the SFO, the NCA, and the A-G, as well as those specified by the Secretary of State in an order under the CJA 2003, s. 29(5)(h). Those so designated as 'relevant prosecutors' include various government departments, the Driver and Vehicle Standards Agency, Transport for London, the Environment Agency, specified local authorities (including county and district councils, and London borough councils), railway operators (for the purpose of prosecuting a railway offence), and the TV licensing authority.
