20th century wars Flashcards
(18 cards)
long term economic causes
SPANISH CIVIL WAR:
Economic divide between the North and the South, extreme poverty in the South - broad division
SP was late to industrialise - 60, 70 years behind the other Eastern European countries
After WW1, initially economically benefited - led to the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera (1922-1930)
Rural problems: South west of SP: Andalucia, Extremadura → Latifundia
Deep economic inequalities between between rural and industrial regions
65% of the land was owned by 2% of the population
Industrial: economic problem and conflict between bosses and workers → general strike 1917), Pistoleros (hitmen that would assassinate union leaders)
→ collective bargaining = more power than single employer
FRENCH INDOCHINA WAR:
FR sought to expand its economic influence in Asia → exploitation of regional resources, economy and people (rice, rubber, coal)
→ exploitation of Indochina as economic resource
→ INDO transformed for industrial purposes
Indigenous populations subjected to high taxes, labor conditions
→ taxes only benefited the FR
→ FR colonialism led to resentment amongst indigenous population due to unfair treatment
long term social causes
SPANISH CIVIL WAR:
Separatist movements in the Basque regions and Catalonia
→ felt undervalued, politically underrepresented, discriminated against
Bad working conditions, no minimum wage, no limit of hours in the factories
Fear that after WW1 workers might be inspired by communism
The Catholic Church: significant for SP → seen as survival of christianity and racial purity ⇒ love of the nation and love of the church were deeply connected
→ yet another divide in society; alarmed by the growth of anti-clericalism, anarcho-syndicalism + socialism ⇒ allied themselves with landowners + army
RWANDA:
- Ethic division
- Nov 1959: violent incident sparked a Hutu uprising in which hundreds of Tutsi were killed and thousands displaced and forced to flee to neighbouring countries → marked the start of the so- called ‘Hutu Peasant Revolution’ or ‘social revolution’ lasting from 1959 to 1961, which signified the end of Tutsi domination and the sharpening of ethnic tensions
- colonial rule → BG largely exploited the difference between the two main ethnicities in RW → BG believed that if there was conflict between these ethnic groups, it would minimise the likelihood of a rebellion against their colonial control
→ BG put the Tutsis in power → in charge of the educational system which became Tuti oriented
in placing the Tutsis in power, BG created a greater tension between these ethnicities
→ Tutsis took advantage of this power
FRENCH INDOCHINA WAR:
Resentment of FR as a colonial power
→ growth of national consciousness amongst VIET
→ FR saw itself as leading a mission of civilisation through education and cultural policies - Western style culture an education
→ labour exploitation of the peasant in IC
→ political oppression
→ cultural alienation
→ communist influence
Growth of VIET nationalism → Viet-Minh created in 1941
**WW1: **
Nationalism - partly a product of social change
Race of industrialisation/imperial competition: increased nationalism in a European society
→ industrialisation as driver of enormous social change
→ mass movement from rural to urban areas in Europe
→ fierce competition adds to nationalist feeling amongst European states
Germany: millions of people leave rural peasant areas to work in urban areas
The feeling of discrimination:
→ in the old Austro-Hungarian empire, many ethnic groups, without any meaningful power 10+ nationalities
→ similar in Russian empire
→ similar in Ottoman empire
long term political causes
SPANISH CIVIL WAR:
After WW1 → universal male suffrage → rise of popularity for left wing parties and unions such as anarcho-syndicalism (CNT) and socialism
Caciques system: local elites
→ cortes still mainly composed of Caciques
→ still a lack of political representation, when left-wing policies were voted, they weren’t put into practice → resentment
Failure of Primo de Rivera’s 1923 “benevolent” dictatorship bc went against the needs for societal unity
→ taste of authoritarian state, sort of experiment
→ no political representation or freedom for ordinary people
The collapse of the monarchy
Political polarisation
Basque regions (economically important due to the iron and steel industry) regions and the Catalonia (important economically for textiles)
→ desire for separatism
FRENCH INDOCHINA WAR:
Indig pop → no political rights or representation, the people gained a consciousness of their lack of political right
Anti-colonial movements
FR struggled to control its colonies in Indochina
Influence of popular nationalist Ho Chi Minh - national consciousness
→ leader, someone who the population had confidence in revolution
long term ideological
SPANISH CIVIL WAR:
Secularism: left saw the catholic church as being corrupt and outdated → desire for a secular state
Right saw the left as destroying the sanctity of the nation which was created by god
Africanistas → very nationalist
Fight against communism and anarcho-syndicalism → saw as religious crusade
→ representing this conflict in the language of the crusade
Rise of communism and anarcho-syndicalism (CNT)
→ communists → international perspective, united by the working class contrast w/ Spanish nationalist
→ anarchists: self-governing communities; succeeded in places like Catalonia
→ conservatives/nationalists concerned by the growth in socialism
Divide between monarchists → Alfonsoists and Carlists
FRENCH INDOCHINA WAR:
Growth of VIET nationalism (national movements such as Viet Minh (1941) lead by Ho Chi Minh wanted to establish an independent state)
→ Viet Minh not created as direct response to France wanting to recolonise Indochina, but to JP’s desire to take over Indochina
→ Viet Minh anti-colonialist movement – want Vietnamese to determine their own future
short term economic
SPANISH CIIVL WAR:
Coal miners strike (Asturias) 1934, attempt to undermine the CEDA coalition
→ 1335 killed, 3000 wounded
failure of the coalition governments to address the bad agrarian working conditions → only 10% of families received land
GDP decreased by 20% in the 1930s, → unemployment reached 13% by 1934 after G.D
Attempts to modernise economy (via land redistribution during the first left wing gov) were often met by opposition from the right, radicalising this political branch → further conflict
first coalition: Catalonia as indep economically
FRENCH INDOCHINA WAR:
FR in a state of economic reconstruction, after the devastation of WW2
economic exploitation of the peasant of INDO → resentment
bad working conditions and pay
short term social causes
SPANISH CIVIL WAR:
Political polarisation rivalled communities against each other
political instability → 3 coalition governments → division was not healed: 1931-1933: radical left wing (PSOE and Radical), 1933-1936: extreme right wing (CEDA) 1936 onwards: radical left wing (frente popular)
There could no longer be any form of cooperation between right wing and left wing
Only solutions to disagreements = violence
13% unemployment by 1934
Asturias → shocking, 1335 killed and 3000 wounded
→ greater unity on the left
FRENCH INDOCHINA WAR:
FR humiliated and losing colonial power
→ post war struggle in FR under De Gaule’s 4eme rébublique → social division in FR
Vietnam suffered famine in 1945, heightening nationalistic messages
→ Viet-Minh: 1941 created → consolidated VIET nationalism
→ terrible food shortages
→ consolidated Vietnamese people’s idea to assert independence
short term political causes
SPANISH CIVIL WAR:
Statute of autonomy → Catalonia 1931
1931-1933: Radical + PSOE → ended with Casas Viajas
1933-1936: CEDA → ended w Asturias
1936: Frente Popular
Casas Viejas 25 people dead when gov. tried to catch communists near Cadiz
Asturias 1934, during the second coalition government → shocking, 1335 killed and 3000 wounded
→ greater unity on the left
→ civil guard involved
→ army involved
Victory of the Popular Front and General’s rising 1936
Reducing the army by 50% → only Africanistas stayed → allowed support for Nationalist mov.
12 July 1936 Murder of Castillo
→ assassinated by right-wing nationalists
July 13 1936 Murder of Sotelo
→ right-wing politician, member of CEDA
**FRENCH INDOCHINA WAR: **
Power vacuum created after control of Indochina was lost by Japan in 1945 (after 1945 August revolution)
global movement of decolonisation
Ho Chi Minh proclaimed Vietnamese independence forming the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) in 1945
FR, failed attempt to regain control of Indochina 1945-46
Failed negotiation during 1946 franco-vietnamese agreement, lack of cooperation from both sides
Unstable Fourth Republic
→ most FR politicians concerned about their own political state + reconstructing FR
→ weaknesses means France has less control and commitment to the war
→ desire for status quo ante – going back to how things used to be
short term ideological causes
SPANISH CIVIL WAR:
Right wing saw the left wing as “godless enemies” as they went against the church and called for educational secularisation
→ election of Frente Popular = increase in desire for social revolution; increase in anarchist collectives (agricultural, urban worker, etc.)
→ revolutionary character of Popular Front is final trigger for uprising of generals
Viewed the republic as a “Red Rising” that had to be stopped to save Spain
FRENCH INDOCHINA:
Rise and uproar of nationalistic ideals
→ due to resentment
global decolonisation after WW2
western fear of communism, (Domino effect → Truman) → involvement of the US
impact of technological developments: land
WW1:
Stalemate of trench warfare for the next 3 years
Poisonous gas:
April 1915 second battle of Ypres
GR used poison (chlorine) gas and mustard gas
→ did not kill anyone but temporarily blinded thousands of soldiers → delivered in canisters → countered by gas masks → could blow back onto own soldiers with the wind, limited effect but initially large psychological impact
Flamethrowers
Battle of verdun 1916
first use, psychological impact, difficult to use, risk of friendly fire, immense devastation to clear trenches
Artillery:
Battle of the Somme 1916
→ 1.6 million shells were fired on GY trenches - 1 million of these did little damage
→ Failure of GB artillery barrage and inexperience causes GB - 60k casualties in the first day
Sept- BR- First tank used battle of Cambrai 1917
(very few available to make a real impact)
Jeeps and trucks introduced by Americans, large positive impact on ease and efficiency of transport
→ Attempts to dig under the enemy trenches, create mines and then blow up the trenches
tunnels could collapse, killing the soldiers digging it
Machine gun nest
elevated position to see enemy lines
rapid fire
→ 600 rounds of ammunition a minute
→ spray bullets over wide area
→machine guns got hot, needed to be cooled for it to not overheat
→ didn’t have enough, had to share, by the end of the war, GB and FR were out producing GY
→ approximate death rate of 20-25%
→ by 1917, 90% of german light ammunition was used in machine guns
→ 12,000 machine guns at the outbreak of WW1, quickly rose to 100,000
Heavy artillery
→ in the first week of the battle of the Somme, several million shells were fired
→ highly devastated, but was not highly significant because a lot of the shells did not explode and both sides had them
→ not a breakthrough technology , could even have contributed to the stalemate as both sides were pegged back
→ created a lot of shell shock
Radios
→ used effectively by GB and FR to communicate with each other → overcame problem of cables and soldiers being send with notes
FRENCH INDOCHINA:
Guerilla warfare from Viet Minh: used sabotage such as road cutting and damaged vehicles and aircrafts, would also ambush FR road systems, also used home-made bombs, pit and grenade traps, also used camouflage
FR defences initially withheld VIET → hérisson formation
VIET followed the Maoist strategy
Phase 1. Political mobilisation and avoiding direct confrontation
Phase 2. Small unit attacks (ambushes and sabotage)
Phase 3. large scale offensive action
Ho Chi Minh Trail, a route through Laos and Cambodia to supply the south
FR maintained fortified positions with heavy firepower
FR → more technologically advanced than VIET
FR, failed search and destroy missions
Tonkin → where most of the battles took place
Dien Bien Phu: Viet-Minh → attacked the French bases from the Hérisson formation, attacked one by one
Viet-Minh used their superior knowledge of the land
FR had superior fire power, Viet-minh had superior tactics
Viet Minh bombed bars, restaurants, cafes and other places where off duty French soldiers would go so that they would never feel safe, they also attacked civilians
impact of technological development: air
SPANISH CIVIL WAR:
Planes from foreign allies - Luftwaffe (German Condor Legion)
Use of Nazi aircraft in the attack of the garrison in Sevilla 1936 → Franco was previously in the Canary Islands
→ played an important role in the nationalists attack that marked the beginning of the civil war
Bombardment of the cultural city of Guernica April 1937
→ Stuka plane used
→ use of incendiary devices
→ significant because it demonstrated the right’s disregard for the separatists movement (in Basque) and culture
→ repeated bombing, terrorising the population
→ 1,600 people died
→ Hitler’s concord legion & Mussolini’s aviazzione Legionaria
→ “destruction of the Basque race” and all that it stood for PRESTON
Use of carpet bombing in Barcelona March 1938
→ from Italian aircraft
→ 1300 killed, 2000 wounded
→ 16-18th of March → nother key separatist region
→ 1000s of building razed to the ground
→ breaks the resistance, republicans lose hope → civilians rush across the French border in refugee camps in the south of france, eg Montpelier
1,000 aircrafts (from IT and GY)
Significant contribution to Franco’s victory → did not have any issues bombing civilians
One of the reasons why Madrid resisted for so long is because they used the aircraft from the USSR effectively, in an attempt to defend
WW1:
Not decisive - too early only 11 years after invention
- Dutch engineer (Fokke) timed shooting machine guns according to the rotation of the propeller to shoot between
- Observation and artillery spotting
- Balloon Busting Barrage balloons- helium tied to ground–defend from artillery bombardment and protect trenches (sometimes cities)
- Develop larger aircrafts- carry bombs
impact of technological development: sea
SPANISH CIVIL WAR:
Battle of Cape Espartel 1936: nationalist victory broke republican naval blockade of the Strait of Gibraltar ⇒ secured maritime supply route to Spanish morocco for nationalists in early stages
Nationalist conquest of the North (May-Oct 1937): naval blockade to starve towns
→ Franco aimed to capture key port of Bilbao and city of Gijón
Battle of Cape Palos Mar 1938: nationalist ships escorting weapons from Italy and troops from the strait of Gibraltar came serendipitously into contact with republican ships. 750 nationalists including rear admiral de Vierna and ship were killed. Biggest naval battle of the war
WW1:
- Was a significant threat but not deceived as only one sea battle occurred
GB naval blockade from Aug 1914-1919 (until ToV):
→ aimed to cut off GY vital supplies: food fertilisers raw materials, controlled maritime access
→ from GB channel to Norway
→ effect for GY → imports were strictly restricted → essencial goods for both the military and the general population
→ Turnip winter fo 1916-1917 → mass starvation → relied on trunips bc had failed to grow potatoes
→ weakened moral and contributed to the collapse of GY on the home front
→ GY tried to retaliate with U-boat attacks, sinking of the Lusitania in 1915, many US lives lost → US joined on side of Allies in April 1917
1914 -1918: 750k GY civilians died from malnutrition
Aircrafts played an important part in war at sea-zeppelins
mobilisation of human and economic resources
WW1:
Mobilization
Schleifen - Russian armies mobilised too quickly due to railway system → overstretch of supply lines in ludendorff offensive - venerable and week
Stalemate- trench warfare (exhaustion and loss of moral)
when firepower is in the ascendancy war is static- technological advantages forced men into the trenches but did not provide a way to get them out
war on two fronts
Germany’s military and economic resources were exhausted faster than allies
Greater imperial resources
Over one million men form Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa in GB army
600k FR troops from African colonies
US - 5 million Americans by 1919
GB shipped to continental Europe over 33 million people, 2.5 m horses, 500k vehicles and 49 m tons of equipment and supplies
FR factories - 35k aircrafts, 5k tanks, 350k telephones
Terriane- “it was the industrial revolution which had produced the masses of people”
Industrial Revolution made it possible to mobilise them, arm then and feed them and more them - war was dominated by technology
Direct cost estimate around 180 billion dollars (3,240 billion in today’s conversion)
FRENCH INDOCHINA WAR:
for Viet-Minh: Guerilla warfare, used untrained citizens, including peasants to fight
the FR army lead the CEFEO, which consisted of combatants from French colonies (Madagascar, Senegal, Tunisia)
2000 Chinese and Soviet military advisors trained the Viet-Minh guerilla force to turn into a full range army
Officially US did not send armed forces to help the FR however undercover air force pilots flew to support french during operation castor in November 1953
September 1950 Truman send Military assistance advisory group (MAAG) to assist france
USSR’s supplied the Viet-Minh with GAZ trucks, truck engines, fuel, tires, machine guns, and other ammunition
CH supplied Viet-Minh with food, money, medics, arms, ammunitions artillery and other military equipment
Due to FR’s state of rebuilding, they had insufficient funds to continue the war, resulting in the US paying for 80% of the war
involvement of foreign powers:
SPANISH CIVIL WAR:
Germany sent aid to Franco aircrafts → bombing of Guernica. → used Spain as a testing ground
IT and GY supplied a total of 90,000 troops, 1,000 men and 400 tanks
The lack of reaction from Britain and France gave Germany the confidence to be more aggressive in their foreign policy
USSR sent military aid (armaments)
RWANDAN CIVIL WAR:
Foreign arms suppliers:
* Egypt
* France
* South Africa
* United States
Before foreign involvement:
October 1990 → Rwandan army had 5’000 soldiers armed with light weapons
End → the army had expanded to 30’000 soldiers, w/ a broader range of light and heavy weapons
The military buildup contributed to mass civilian casualties and displacement
The expansion was primarily fuelled by foreign arms supplies from France, Egypt and South Africa (with France playing the most significant role)
Egypt as a key arms supplier (agreement)
Public and secret Rwandan purchases from South Africa
France’s major military support
Egypt:
March 1992: sold $6 million worth of weapons, financed by France’s Credit Lyonnais bank
The terms of this secret agreement between Rwanda and Egypt were:
Rwanda was to pay $1 million cash within 6 months of the contract
Another $1 million was to be paid by delivering 615 tonnes of Rwandan tea by the end of 1992
The remaining $4 million were to be paid between 1993 and 1996
Financial difficulties arose after RPF seized key tea plantations
Arms included:
Mortars, artillery, RPG-7s, landmines, explosives, Kalashnikov rifles
France:
Played the most significant role
Supplied and maintained heavy artillery, assault vehicles, helicopters
Arms included:
Mortars, artillery, armoured cared, Gazelle helicopters
humanitarian project “Operation Turquoise” → allowed thousands of Hutus to flee to the RDC → causing civil war in the RDC → Great Lakes Crisis
South Africa:
Despite a UN resolution discouraging arms imports, South Africa supplied the Rwandan government with arms
December 1984: UN Security Council, “Requests all States to refrain from importing arms, ammunition of all types and military vehicles produced in South Africa”
In October 1922, 3’000 Rwandan army troops were equipped with South African automatic rifles
October 1992: provided light arms, machine guns, grenades, ammunition
RPF also captured some South African weapons from the Rwandan army
Arms included:
Automatic rifles, machine guns, grenade launchers, fragmentation grenades
United States:
Military aid was limited, with $2.3 million in sales (1981-1992)
Funded training for Rwandan officers at US military schools, with emphasis on teaching basic infantry and engineering skills
Despite small role in arms supply, US maintained strong diplomatic ties with the Rwandan government
UN peacekeeping
The UN peacekeeping force, the United Nations Assistance Mission to Rwanda (UNAMIR), had been deployed in Rwanda in October 1993 with a limited mandate to help the parties implement the Arusha Agreement, the bulk of this force withdrew soon after the outbreak of violence.
UN peacekeeping → Australia
In August 1994, following the genocide (April–July), Australia deployed Australian Defence Force (ADF) part of UNAMIR II, the second phase of the UN peacekeeping mission.
Around 300 Australian troops, mainly medical and logistical staff, were deployed under Operation Tamar.
Their main base was in Kigali, Rwanda’s capital.
successes and failures of peacemaking
WW1:
successes:
Treaty of Versailles (1919): Officially ended WW1; held Germany responsible for the war
→ J.M Keynes saw it as overly harsh and a root for inevitable revenge from Germany
New International Order: The League of Nations established to prevent future conflicts through diplomacy and collective security.
Self-determination promoted: Wilson’s 14 Points encouraged formation of independent states for national groups (e.g. Poland, Czechoslovakia)
→ could be viewed as a weakness bc difficult in practice and only aplied to European state
→ the implementation of self determination was very challenging; had to determine borders based on ethnicity creating instability in successor states due to ethnic minorities being forced to live in the state eg. Czechoslovakia
failures:
Harsh terms for Germany: War guilt clause (Article 231), $33 billion in reparations, territorial losses created bitterness and economic collapse → the feeling of betrayal from the treaty of Versaille shaped GY politics for the next 20 years
Excluded key powers: U.S. Senate refused to ratify the Treaty; the U.S. never joined the League of Nations
Ineffectiveness of the League: No military enforcement capability; failed to prevent aggression in the 1930s (e.g. Japan, Italy, Germany)
Treaties sowed future discord: Artificial borders and minority groups in new nations led to instability (e.g. Sudeten Germans in Czechoslovakia)
FRENCH INDOCHINA WAR:
successes:
1954 Geneva Accords, divided Vietnam along the 17th parallel (The south lead by Ngo Dinh Diem favoured by the US, and the North by Ho Chi Minh favoured by communist and nationalists)
→ republic of Vietnam in the South under Diem (violently anti communist) → belonged to the catholic minority and was anti-Buddhist
Successful in the sense that FR agrees to give up control of colony + promised elections in 1956 (which never took place)
failures:
Promised election after final declaration in July 1956 in Geneva Accords were never held
→ lack of democratic election put in place → US interference detrimental
→ a lot to do with the Cold War
→ ambiguity of the US in the Geneva accord facilitated their involvement in the
→ beginning of separate regime
→ later led to the Vietnam war
→ US interference was detrimental
Political instability in Cambodia after
Division of Vietnam along 17th parallel meant to be temporary → is in place for much longer than intended
territorial changes:
WW1:
Collapse of empires:
The Austro-Hungarian Empire split into Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia.
Ottoman Empire dismantled; Turkey formed, rest divided into League of Nations mandates.
German Empire lost land in Europe and all overseas colonies.
Russian Empire lost territory to new states like Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland.
New countries created:
Central/Eastern Europe saw new borders based on ethnicity and political compromise.
Poland was restored after over 100 years of partition.
Yugoslavia unified South Slavic peoples.
Czechoslovakia formed from Czech and Slovak lands
German territorial losses:
Alsace-Lorraine returned to France.
Rhineland demilitarized.
Danzig (Gdańsk) became a free city.
Saarland is administered by the League of Nations.
FRENCH INDOCHINA WAR:
the Geneva accords divided Vietnam at the 17th parallel
North Vietnam was now under Ho Chi Minh and under communist rule, backed by China and USSR
South Vietnam was now a non-communist regime under Ngo Dinh Diem, backed by France and United States
Loss of FR territory
political repercussions:
WW1:
End of monarchies:
The German Kaiser abdicated; the Weimar Republic formed.
The Russian Tsar overthrown; the Bolshevik (Communist) government took over.
Habsburg and Ottoman dynasties collapsed
Rise of extremism:
Economic instability and political dissatisfaction paved the way for fascism in Italy (Mussolini) and Germany (Hitler).
Communism spread beyond Russia, influencing unsuccessful but significant uprisings in Germany, Hungary, etc.
New fragile democracies:
Many newly-formed states lacked democratic tradition and were politically unstable.
Ethnic tensions undermined unity in multinational states like Yugoslavia.
Colonial unrest:
Colonies felt betrayed after supporting the Allies in the war.
Rise in anti-colonial movements in Asia, Africa, and the Middle East (e.g. India, Egypt)
Shift in global power:
U.S. emerged as a major economic and political power.
Europe’s dominance began to wane
FRENCH INDOCHINA WAR:
Geneva Accords july 1954
French Humiliation, not perceived as a colonial power anymore( had effect on independence movements in other French colonies, especially the FLN in Algeria)
Unresolved tensions between Vietnamese themselves
→ although no longer colonised, Vietnamese do not agree on what independent Vietnam should be
→ no unification of the people for a common image of the future of Vietnam
Repercussions are long-term and in the Cold War context
social economic and demographical impacts
WW1:
Economic Impacts
Widespread economic devastation:
Major European economies are heavily damaged by war spending and destruction
Infrastructure, farmland, and industry destroyed in key regions (e.g. France, Belgium)
“zone rouge” in FR → Somme → destroyed industrial production declined to 60%
War debts and reparations:
Britain and France borrowed heavily from the U.S. during the war
Germany reparations → ToV → $33 billion
Hyperinflation in Germany:
Economic collapse in early 1920s; German mark became virtually worthless
Middle class savings wiped out, fueling social unrest
Shift in economic power:
U.S. became the world’s leading creditor nation.
Global economy increasingly reliant on American investment and loans
Unemployment and strikes:
Post-war demobilization led to job losses and industrial decline.
Labor unrest and strikes increased, especially in Britain and Germany.
Social Impacts
Psychological trauma:
Millions of soldiers returned with “shell shock” (early PTSD).
Deep societal disillusionment—reflected in art, literature (e.g. Hemingway, Remarque)
“Lost Generation”:
Class tensions intensified:
War effort blurred class lines temporarily but led to post-war demands for reform.
Working class demanded better pay, rights, and conditions
Cultural shifts:
War changed values, attitudes toward tradition, gender roles, and authority.
Increase in pacifist and anti-war movements.
Reintegration challenges:
Veterans faced limited support, unemployment, and social alienation.
Demographic Impacts
High casualty rates:
~9-11 million soldiers killed; ~20 million wounded.
Civilian deaths from famine, disease, and wartime violence also high (e.g. Armenian Genocide, 1918 flu pandemic).
Demographic imbalance:
Millions of young men dead or disabled; skewed gender ratios.
Long-term impact on birth rates and family structures.
Refugee crises and displacement:
Population movements due to collapsing empires, redrawn borders, and revolutions.
Ethnic minorities fled or were expelled (e.g. Greeks from Turkey).
Impact on future generations:
Loss of fathers/husbands led to changes in household dynamics and societal roles
FRENCH INDOCHINA WAR:
- psychological impact on prisoners of war( more than 2000 French, Legionnaire and African soldiers were reported as POWS, in addition to tens of thousands of indochinese)
- 2 million North Vietnamese civilians emigrated to South as a result of partition
- Viet Minh soldiers required to leave South Vietnam (some secretly remained in south)
- a rough estimate of 175000 civilians killed
- executions of political opponents with official state policy, state sponsored execution,
- Ho Chi Minh realising this land reform grew resentment in population and released some prisoners from jail and dissolved the peoples agricultural reform tribunals in 1956
- now that colonial power had left it sparked conflict between North and South Vietnam, and rapidly increased civil unrest
- with assistance from Soviet union and China, gov in North embarked on program of socialist industrialization and began to collectivize agriculture in earnest in 1958
- Ngo Dinh Diem eliminated pro- French
- Elements in the military and abolished local autonomy of several political religious groups
- In August Operation Passage to Freedom began, consisting of the evacuation of Catholic and other Vietnamese civilians from communist North Vietnamese persecution
impacts on women
WW1:
Increased role in workforce:
Women worked in factories, transport, nursing, administration—occupations traditionally held by men.
Gained experience and confidence in public life.
Political gains:
Suffrage expanded post-war due to their contributions.
UK: Women over 30 gained the vote in 1918; over 21 in 1928.
USA: 19th Amendment (1920) gave women full voting rights.
Weimar Germany: Full female voting rights from beginning
Temporary change:
Many women lost their jobs after the war as men returned, but expectations had shifted.
Women increasingly challenged traditional gender norms.
Social impact:
Women’s visibility and independence grew.
Growth in feminist movements and campaigns for equality continued through the 1920s.
Women’s participation in German politics grew
SPANISH CIVIL WAR:
Back to traditional role of mothers and wives, who obeyed to their husbands and God
Expected to conform to traditional roles as housewives and mothers
Prominent position given to the Catholic Church in Nationalist zones during the war also served to reinforce this model
Strict expectations about women’s dress + appearance
→ modestly dressed in public, covering arms and legs
Conservative view of women was enshrined in decrees passed by the ruling Defence Council
→ prohibition of divorce and civil marriage
→ prohibition on mixed-gender classrooms
→ education for girls focused on domestic work and motherhood
Extremely conservative moral teaching
Paid work, especially for married women, was discouraged
March 1938: Labour Charter promised to “liberate” married women from work in workshops and factories
French Indochinese war:
FR legionnaire and CEFEO → used rape and sexual violence as a weapon → Saigon, alongside robberies and killings, following the return of the French in August 1945
also in 1948 in: Bảo Hà
Mỹ Trạch massacre of 1947 FR soldiers killed over 200 women and children
Goscha: “Rape became a disturbing weapon used by the Expeditionary Corps”
physical and psychological scars and contributed to the climate of fear and instability for women during the conflict
With many men away fighting or killed, women often became the primary caretakers and providers for their families. They managed households, tended farms, and ensured the survival of their communities under the constant threat of violence and displacement. This shift challenged traditional gender roles, increasing the responsibilities and visibility of women in daily life
Jobs while Viet-Minh was fighting - increased visibility and responsibilities
Despite their increased responsibilities and contributions, Vietnamese women remained at the bottom of the colonial social hierarchy. French colonial policies and attitudes reinforced both racial and gender subordination, with indigenous women facing compounded discrimination compared to French women, who enjoyed greater privilege and status
Historians such as Bird believe the French imposed mysoginistic gender role to further consolidate their colonial control
