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Human Rights > 2.a. The geography of gender inequality is complex and contested. > Flashcards

2.a. The geography of gender inequality is complex and contested. Flashcards

1
Q

What is gender inequality?

A

The unequal treatment of individuals based on their gender where by men or usually women are denied the same rights and opportunities across sectors of society.

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2
Q

Statistics show that in many instances, females suffer from gender inequality the most. How?

A

The average wage gap between men and women in 2013 was 19.7%.

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3
Q

What can gender inequality majorly limit?

A

Development.

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4
Q

Global patterns of gender inequality are closely related to what?

A

Disparities in respect for the rights of women.

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5
Q

How is gender inequality measured? Who created it?

A

The Global Gender Gap Index (GGGI).

Devised by the World Economic Forum (WEF).

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6
Q

What are the 4 key areas that the Global Gender Gap Index focuses on?

A

Health and survival.

Educational attainment.

Economic participation and opportunity.

Political empowerment.

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7
Q

State 2 factors measured in the ‘health and survival’ area of the GGGI.

A

Sex ratio at birth.

Healthy life expectancy.

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8
Q

State 2 factors measured in the ‘educational attainment’ area of the GGGI.

A

Literacy rate.

Enrolment in primary education.

Enrolment in secondary education.

Enrolment in tertiary education.

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9
Q

State 2 factors measured in the ‘economic participation and opportunity’ area of the GGGI.

A

Labour force participation.

Wage equality for similar work.

Estimated earned income.

Legislators, senior officials and managers.

Professional and technical workers.

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10
Q

State 2 factors measured in the ‘political empowerment’ area of the GGGI.

A

Women in parliament.

Women in ministerial positions.

Years with female head of state (last 50).

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11
Q

What is a strength of the GGGI’s ‘economic participation and opportunity’ key area?

A

Good discriminator for ACs.

Highlights the effectiveness of opportunities to education and rights.

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12
Q

What is a strength of the GGGI’s ‘educational attainment’ key area?

A

Shows more students being given the opportunity to attend school.

Education level split may indicate the dropout gender split. E.g. women married off to have children.

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13
Q

What is a strength of the GGGI’s ‘health and survival’ key area?

A

Some countries restrict gender differences, e.g. China prefers boys than girls - so forced ratios can easily be recorded.

Equality in access to healthcare.

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14
Q

What is a strength of the GGGI’s ‘political empowerment’ key area?

A

Women in parliament are able to make informed decisions on the basis of their own gender. This allows governments to provide for a wider population.

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15
Q

What is a weakness of the GGGI’s ‘economic participation and opportunity’ key area?

A

Female desire for job preference is not accounted for.

Wage differences are affected by job/ career choice.

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16
Q

What is a weakness of the GGGI’s ‘educational attainment’ key area?

A

Enrolment does not assess actual learning. High enrolment does not equal high attendance.

Education is the first step but of little use if opportunities stop.

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17
Q

What is a weakness of the GGGI’s ‘health and survival’ key area?

A

Doesn’t cover aspects of actions like FGM or access to family planning.

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18
Q

What is a weakness of the GGGI’s ‘political empowerment’ key area?

A

Women may be in political positions, but this doesn’t consider the inputs they provide.

Years in power distorted by long-term head of state, so is not representative.

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19
Q

What are the high priority recommendations for the government in order to improve Human Rights in Saudi Arabia?

(Modern slavery in Saudi Arabia and the Gulf States: Case Study)

A

Remove laws or policies that prevent or make it difficult for workers to leave abusive employers without risk of loss of visa and deportation and/or security deposits.

Criminalise forced labour in line with international conventions.

Increase the legal age of marriage for males and females to 18 years.

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20
Q

How many people in SA and the GS are estimated to be living in modern slavery?

(Modern slavery in Saudi Arabia and the Gulf States: Case Study)

A

1.7 million. (10.1 per 1000).

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21
Q

How many people in SA and the GS are in forced labour? What about forced marriages?

(Modern slavery in Saudi Arabia and the Gulf States: Case Study)

A

52% in forced labour, and 48% in forced marriages.

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22
Q

What is Saudi Arabia’s modern slavery vulnerability score?

(Modern slavery in Saudi Arabia and the Gulf States: Case Study)

A

56%.

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23
Q

What Gulf states have the best government response to modern slavery?

(Modern slavery in Saudi Arabia and the Gulf States: Case Study)

A

Bahrain (55%).

UAE (50%).

Qatar (49%).

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24
Q

What Gulf states have the worst government response to modern slavery?

(Modern slavery in Saudi Arabia and the Gulf States: Case Study)

A

Lebanon (33%).

Iraq (33%).

Kuwait (37%).

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25
Q

In 2021, an estimated how many individuals in the Arab States region were living in modern slavery?

(Modern slavery in Saudi Arabia and the Gulf States: Case Study)

A

1.7 million.

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26
Q

In the Arab States region, what was the most common form of exploitation? How many people does this account for?

(Modern slavery in Saudi Arabia and the Gulf States: Case Study)

A

Forced labour.

This accounts for just over half of people living in modern slavery (52%).

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27
Q

What country has the highest estimated number of people in modern slavery, compared to other Gulf States?

(Modern slavery in Saudi Arabia and the Gulf States: Case Study)

A

Saudi Arabia.

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28
Q

What is the Kafala system?

(Modern slavery in Saudi Arabia and the Gulf States: Case Study)

A

A system used to monitor migrant laborers, working primarily in the construction and domestic sectors in Gulf Cooperation Council member states

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29
Q

Has the Kafala system been positive?

(Modern slavery in Saudi Arabia and the Gulf States: Case Study)

A

No, the kafala system in certain countries has increased the risk of labour exploitation for migrant workers in the region.

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30
Q

How has conflict (particularly in Syria, Iraq, and Yemen) contributed to modern slavery experiences?

(Modern slavery in Saudi Arabia and the Gulf States: Case Study)

A

Forced and child marriages.

Trafficking.

Exploitation of displaced families.

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31
Q

Yazidis face persecution by ISIS, due to ongoing terrorist attacks in Kurdish regions. How can this be applied to modern slavery?

(Modern slavery in Saudi Arabia and the Gulf States: Case Study)

A

Yazidi men and women abducted by ISIS in 2014 remain missing, with reports of some still being enslaved in various locations.

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32
Q

What may lead to inaccurate modern slavery estimate statistics? Give an example.

(Modern slavery in Saudi Arabia and the Gulf States: Case Study)

A

Data collection gaps and limitations in conflict-ridden countries.

E.g. child soldier recruitment and organ trafficking, may not be fully captured.

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33
Q

Outline conflict as a driver of vulnerability to modern slavery in Arab States.

A

Conflict is a significant driver of vulnerability in the Arab States, with heightened risks of modern slavery in Iraq, Syria, and Yemen due to conflict. Oman and the UAE, experiencing comparatively low conflict levels, show less vulnerability.

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34
Q
A

Discrimination against minority groups, political instability, and lack of political rights contribute to vulnerability.

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35
Q

Outline COVID-19 as a driver of vulnerability to modern slavery in Arab States.

A

COVID-19 has exacerbated risks, leading to increased wage theft, detention, confinement, and unemployment, particularly affecting migrant workers in GCC countries.

During the pandemic, women and girls in the region faced heavier domestic work burdens and increased risk of gender-based violence.

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36
Q

Outline gender inequality as a driver of vulnerability to modern slavery in Arab States.

A

Gender inequality is a large issue, with all Arab States (except the UAE) ranking poorly in the World Economic Forum’s 2021 Global Gender Gap Index.

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37
Q

Outline erosion of state protection as a driver of vulnerability to modern slavery in Arab States.

A

The erosion of state protection in conflict-affected countries increases the risk of conflict-related sexual violence and slavery.

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38
Q

Outline climate change as a driver of vulnerability to modern slavery in Arab States.

A

Climate change effects, such as severe drought in Syria and desertification in Jordan, contribute to extreme water stress across most Arab States.

Climate change exacerbates push factors for modern slavery, including poverty, and loss of livelihoods.

Climate change effects, such as severe drought in Syria and desertification in Jordan, contribute to extreme water stress across most Arab States.

Climate-related resource scarcity can trigger conflict and recruitment into armed groups, compounding vulnerability to modern slavery.

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39
Q

Outline natural disasters as a driver of vulnerability to modern slavery in Arab States.

A

Natural disasters in Yemen and disruptions to food imports worsen the humanitarian crisis.

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40
Q

Outline threatened livelihoods as a driver of vulnerability to modern slavery in Arab States.

A

Threatened livelihoods may lead to negative coping mechanisms like forced and child marriage, and irregular migration, heightening trafficking risks.

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41
Q

What is the variation in the global pattern of the gender gap?

A

The greater a countries HDI, the greater its GGGI.

ACs have better gender equality than LIDCs.

Scandinavian countries have the highest GGGI.

However, there are exceptions such as Uganda (LIDC) which has a low HDI but a GGGI that is much greater.

Compared to Italy (AC), Uganda has 0.010 GGGI, but 0.355 lower HDI.

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42
Q

What is the mean GGGI for Western Europe?

A

0.802

43
Q

What is the mean GGGI for Sub-Saharan Africa?

A

0.652

44
Q

What is the mean GGGI for Middle East and North America?

A

0.570

45
Q

What is the median GGGI for Western Europe?

A

0.806

46
Q

What is the median GGGI for Sub-Saharan Africa?

A

0.652

47
Q

What is the median GGGI for Middle East and North America?

A

0.576

48
Q

What statistical test could you carry out to determine if there is a relationship between GGGI and Development?

A

Spearman’s rank.

49
Q

What is being done about gender inequality?

A

There have been great improvements in protecting and promoting human rights in the 21st Century, but women and girls continue to experience harmful, gender based discrimination and exploitation.

This is particularly true in LIDCs.

50
Q

Which region has seen the fastest rate of Global Gender Gap closure?

A

Western Europe.

51
Q

Which region has seen the slowest rate of Global Gender Gap closure?

A

Middle East and North America.

52
Q

Of the indices used by the WEF, closure has been fastest in ‘Health and Survival’ and slowest in ‘Political Empowerment’. Suggest reasons why this may be the case.

A

You can invest money into healthcare and hospitals, whereas political empowerment is a long-term social change - changing and breaking down social norms and barriers.

You cannot invest money into political positions (so is therefore much harder to implement change).

53
Q

What did Millennium Declaration, adopted by the world leaders, promised to do?

A

Free all men, women, and children from the abject and de-humanizing conditions of extreme poverty.

54
Q

How is the second Millennium Development Goal being realised?

A

Easy to invest money into - increasing resources.

Primary levels of education does not require thorough teaching.

However, primary education stopping post-13yrs - may inflict forced marriages.

Instead, education should continue further beyond, (e.g. tertiary education).

55
Q

How is the third Millennium Development Goal being realised?

A

Can help to create equal political contributions.

This would then increase importance of government decisions, as a wider population understand would be achieved.

56
Q

How is the fifth Millennium Development Goal being realised?

A

Easy to invest money into - increasing resources.

Sanitation is a social and economic issue, so the input of resources is only half of the issue.

For example, traditional birthing methods may reject improvements of maternal health due to social barriers.

57
Q

What can help to set out the obligation of national governments to protect the rights of women?

(The work of the UN)

A

International treaties.

Recommendations.

Declarations.

58
Q

What does CEDAW stand for? What is CEDAW?

(The work of the UN)

A

The Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW).

Strengthening the rule of law and reinforce norms to outlaw gender discrimination. ​

59
Q

Name an NGO that is working with local communities to overcome specific issues.

A

The International Centre for Research on Women (ICRW).

60
Q

NGOs such as the International Centre for Research on Women (ICRW) are working with local communities to overcome specific issues​. However, many women and girls continue to be at risk. Why?

A

Ethnic differences and overcoming social norms - western strategies may be threatening to e.g. African communities.

International treaties - governments can sign them, but they do not have to enforce them.

NGOs don’t have much power - limited funding (good for rural communities), but cannot create widespread change.

61
Q

The complexity and contested nature of gender inequality is demonstrated by 7 remaining challenges. Name 3.

A

Forced marriage, often involving children.

Access to education and health care.

Violence against women.

Trafficking into forced labour including sex slavery.

Employment opportunities and political participation.

Wage equality for similar work to men.

Access to reproductive health and services.

62
Q

The issues of gender inequality are seen mainly in what three areas?

A

Educational opportunities.

Access to reproductive health services.

Employment opportunities.

63
Q

Average years of school is greater in ACs than LIDCs. Give an example.

Give an example of an anomaly?

(Average years of school attendance for selected countries, 2018)
(Gender inequality: educational opportunities)

A

For example, Germany has just above 14 years of school attendance on average (male), whereas Yemen has just over 4 years on average (male).

Brazil is the anomaly, as it is the only country on the graph that has a greater average female years of school attendance than males.

64
Q

Which regions do girls still suffer severe disadvantages and exclusion from education?

(Gender inequality: educational opportunities)

A

Poorer countries, in particular in rural areas and among the rural poor.

The obstacles to female secondary school participation are greatest in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia.

65
Q

Give 3 social factors for why so many girls do not access education in parts of the world.

(Gender inequality: educational opportunities)

A

Household obligations often fall on the eldest girl when the family burden of work increases because of male emigration.

In patriarchal systems, female education may only be of benefit to the family into which into which a daughter marries and not to her own family.

Negative classroom environments in which girls face violence, exploitation and corporal punishment.

The impact of girls being exploited for child labour.

The prevalence of child marriage.

Early pregnancy.

66
Q

Give 3 economic factors for why so many girls do not access education in parts of the world.

(Gender inequality: educational opportunities)

A

Costs may prohibit all the children in a family from continuing in secondary education; it is usually the girls that suffer.

Insufficient numbers of female teachers.

Inadequate sanitation in schools which do not offer private or separate latrines.

67
Q

Give 3 political factors for why so many girls do not access education in parts of the world.

(Gender inequality: educational opportunities)

A

Insufficient government investment.

Inadequate legislation.

The differing levels of support for education by different religions.

Pressure put on government by TNCs that highlights concerns and sets targets to be achievable.

68
Q

Why is female education so important?

(Gender inequality: educational opportunities)

A

Female education is the key to empowering women.

Important in achieving gender equality in all respects.

Helps women to move into the labour market and increase the production capacity of the labour force.

Family health and child nutrition can be improved: significant effects on poverty reduction.

69
Q

What is being done about the issue? Who is involved?

(Gender inequality: educational opportunities)

A

The UN has established the Girls’ Education Initiative, for which UNICEF is the lead agency.

Many NGOs are involved in education partnerships in poorer countries.

TNCs are assuming a role in education as part of their Corporate Social Responsibility.

70
Q

Who is most at risk? In which regions of the world are they most at risk?

(Gender inequality: access to reproductive health services)

A

Girls and young women living in poor communities in developing countries are most at risk.

Economically and socially disadvantaged women are less likely to gain access to health services, information and education, and less likely to become empowered to negotiate safer sex and decide on the number and spacing of their children.

Girls in poor communities face the additional obstacles of early marriage and early child bearing.

71
Q

State 2 social factors affecting female reproductive health.

(Gender inequality: access to reproductive health services)

A

STDs including HIV.

Harmful traditional practices, especially FGM.

Sexual violence.

72
Q

State 2 economic factors affecting female reproductive health.

(Gender inequality: access to reproductive health services)

A

Early forced marriage.

High rates of young pregnancies

Forced sterilisation or abortion.

73
Q

State a political factor affecting female reproductive health.

(Gender inequality: access to reproductive health services)

A

Gender bias in education/ access to education.

74
Q

Why are economically and socially disadvantaged females and those in poor communities most at risk?

(Gender inequality: access to reproductive health services)

A

Girls who are victims of cultural practices such as female genital mutilation (FGM) which are discriminatory and closely linked to human rights.

Education ends, job prospects diminish, they become vulnerable to poverty and exclusion, health suffers and maternal mortality rates in this age category are among the highest.

75
Q

According to UNICEF (2019), in sub-Saharan Africa, what percentage of females were married before the age of 15?

What percentage before they were 18?

(Gender inequality: access to reproductive health services)

A

12% of females were married before the age of 15.

37% before they were 18.

76
Q

The UN estimates that the annual birth rate for 15-19 year old women in LIDCs was what?

What about in sub-Saharan Africa?

(Gender inequality: access to reproductive health services)

A

UN estimates of the annual birth rate for 15-19 year old women in Least Developed Countries was 94/1000 live births, and in sub- Saharan Africa, 103/1000.

This has a cascading effect on the lives of young women.

77
Q

What is being done about the reproductive health situation? Who is involved?

(Gender inequality: access to reproductive health services)

A

The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights; and the ‘on the ground’ work of NGOs such as ICRW, Amref Health Africa and Womankind, which are working closely with the communities worst affected.

Girls Not Brides, a global partnership of more than 1300 civil society organisations, is committed to ending child marriage and enabling girls to fulfil their potential.

78
Q

What is the labour force participation rate?

(Gender inequality: access to employment opportunities)

A

An index of employment equality used by the World Bank and the ILO.

This is the ratio of females to males within a country’s working population (fifteen years and over) that engages in the labour market either by working or actively looking for work.

79
Q

What is the ILO?

A

International Labour Organisation.

80
Q

How does the Labour force participation rate vary between different regions of the world?

A

Significant global variation in this index.

E.g. ratio for Rwanda is 100.82 indicating greater female participation than male, whereas for Iraq it is 17.1 revealing very limited female access to the labour market relative to men.

Countries with high HDI such as USA, 82.1, and Japan, 72.9, have high female participation, but none have achieved female-male employment parity.

India, 29.8, has a relatively low ratio compared with other rapidly emerging economies.

81
Q

State two social factors that affects the spatial variation of gender ratio of labour force participation.

A

Social norms, e.g. where primary responsibility in securing household income through employment is attributed to men and where women are expected to devote time to unpaid domestic care.

Cultural beliefs and practices of religious or social groups.

Gender-based norms that shape the educational and job decisions of women and men.

Social acceptance of women as contributors to household income.

82
Q

State an economic factor that affects the spatial variation of gender ratio of labour force participation.

A

Levels of discrimination by employers.

Sectoral structure of the labour market.

83
Q

State a political factor that affects the spatial variation of gender ratio of labour force participation.

A

Levels of governmental and company support for childcare.

Degrees to which equal opportunity is safeguarded by law. According to the UN (2019), there are still 18 countries in which husbands can legally prevent their wives from working.

84
Q

What type of country is India?

(Case study: women’s rights in India)
(Gender inequality issues in India)

A

An EDC.

85
Q

Is India’s economy and population good? How?

(Case study: women’s rights in India)

A

Has one of the world’s fastest growing economies and has a rapidly growing population.

Population was 1.35 billion. (2020)

86
Q

In India, between 2015 and 2019, GDP per capita increased from what to what?

(Case study: women’s rights in India)

A

US$1609 to US$2044.

87
Q

In India, between 2015 and 2019, total value of exports increased from what to what?

(Case study: women’s rights in India)

A

US$264 billion to US$324 billion.

88
Q

India has experiences significant sectoral change. This has been create rapid growth in what?

(Case study: women’s rights in India)

A

The contribution of services to GDP.

89
Q

What is India ranked in the WEF GGGI?

(Case study: women’s rights in India)

A

112th out of 153 countries.

90
Q

What is India ranked in the UN’s Gender Inequality Index?

(Case study: women’s rights in India)

A

129th out of 189 countries.

91
Q

How many crimes against women were recorded in the state of Uttar Pradesh?

(Case study: women’s rights in India)

(Violation of women’s rights in India - NCRB statistics (2017))

A

59,445.

35,497 in Maharashtra.

30,394 in West Bengal.

92
Q

What is the NCRB?

(Case study: women’s rights in India)

A

National Crime Records Bureau

93
Q

There were 59,445 crimes against women recorded in the state of Uttar Pradesh. What are examples of some of these reports?

(Case study: women’s rights in India)

A

Cruelty by their husband or his relatives.

Kidnapping and abduction of women.

Assault.

Rape.

Murder with rape/gang rape.

Dowry deaths.

Buying and selling of girls.

Human trafficking.

Acid attacks.

94
Q

India’s prevalence of child marriage is also significant to women’s rights. In 2019, what fraction of the world’s child brides lived in India?

(Case study: women’s rights in India)

A

1 in 3, (223 million in total).

95
Q

What Indian state had the greatest number of child marriage cases?

(Case study: women’s rights in India)

A

Uttar Pradesh.

36 million.

96
Q

Outline ‘violence against women’ as a factor affecting gender inequality within India.

(Case study: women’s rights in India)

A

28.7% of women experience gender violence in their lifetime.

This is underpinned by persistent social norms; deeply entrenched patriarchal and customary practices are perpetuated by their husbands.

In 2017, the most prevalent of crimes against women in India were:

Cruelty by husband and his relatives (31.9%).
Assault on women (27.6%).
Kidnapping and abduction of women (22.5%).

In addition, police registered 33,658 cases of rape which made up 10.3% of all crimes in India - an average of over 90 per day.

97
Q

Outline ‘modern slavery’ as a factor affecting gender inequality within India.

(Case study: women’s rights in India)

A

The Global Slavery Index in 2017 estimates 8 million victims, mostly women and girls, for India.

This included trafficking for forced labour including sexual exploitation.

Bonded labour schemes are still prevalent:
E.g. parents have been persuaded to send their daughters to work in the spinning mills of Tamil Nadu with a promise of a lump sum after 3 years which would contribute to dowry costs.

98
Q

Outline ‘property ownership’ as a factor affecting gender inequality within India.

(Case study: women’s rights in India)

A

There has been progress towards improving female property and inheritance rights by law, this is important in terms of economic empowerment of women.

But in practice women’s rights in ownership of land and property are very limited, with inheritance still invariably patriarchal especially in rural communities.

99
Q

Outline ‘employment opportunities’ as a factor affecting gender inequality within India.

(Case study: women’s rights in India)

A

There is gender inequality in the labour market in India.

Women have limited access to employment opportunities and are often expected to remain at home, raise children, conduct domestic chores and work in subsistence farming.

This is especially true of the rural poor.

Even women who have received a full secondary or tertiary education still do not enter the work force, finding it hard not to conform to social norms of marriage and immediate motherhood.

100
Q

Outline ‘discrimination in the workplace’ as a factor affecting gender inequality within India.

(Case study: women’s rights in India)

A

Common practice.

Maternity benefits are denied by many employers workplace and most women do not return to work after childbirth.

In Delhi only 25% of married women returned to work after childbirth, including those who can afford to pay for childcare.

There is social conditioning that it is women’s responsibility to bring up their children.

Female participation in the workforce is consequently very low; there is still gender inequality in earned income; and although slowly increasing, there are few women in managerial and senior positions; only 13.8% of board members of listed companies
are women.

101
Q

Outline ‘political participation’ as a factor affecting gender inequality within India.

(Case study: women’s rights in India)

A

Gender inequality is perpetuated by the lack of women in government at national, provincial and local level.

Women have poor representation in India’s parliament (only 11.4% of seats held in the upper house, compared with 88.6% held by men).

There are few women in ministerial positions.

102
Q

Outline ‘access to healthcare’ as a factor affecting gender inequality within India.

(Case study: women’s rights in India)

A

Even by 2020 there continued to be extreme gender discrimination against women in access to health care.

This is closely related to the cultural norms of male dominance in Indian society.

Access varies depending on:

Reproductive age of the woman.
Distance to hospital.
Cost of travel.
Level of poverty.
Number of doctors and medical facilities available.
Government spending especially in rural areas.

103
Q

Outline ‘access to education’ as a factor affecting gender inequality within India.

(Case study: women’s rights in India)

A

There has been progress in enrolment of girls in primary education under SDG 4, but there are still many barriers.

Transition to, or completion of, secondary education is affected by restrictive factors, especially in poor communities, such as:

Family requirements for girls to contribute to housework and agricultural work.
Provision of a safe, secure learning environment in schools.
Continued prevalence of child marriage.

104
Q
A

Human Rights (3 decks)

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