3: Arguments

Question 1

What are good arguments?

Answer 1

Good arguments are the medium through which we plan, explain, persuade, convince, show, demonstrate and prove things successfully through language.

Question 2

What are the two parts of an argument?

Answer 2

1. Premises, evidence, assumptions
2. Conclusion, claim, inference

Question 3

What are some characteristics of arguments?

Answer 3

1. A passage may contain more than one argument
2. Every argument can be expressed in the form of a single conditional declarative sentence
3. An argument has exactly one conclusion and it may occur anywhere within a passage
4. Some conclusions are implied rather than stated explicitly
5. Every premise is an explicit or implicit assumption
6. Not every statement in a passage needs to be either a premise or the conclusion
7. A statement is a premise or a conclusion only in relation to other statements within a particular argument

Question 4

What are indicators?

Answer 4

Something that signals the presence of something else.

1. Premise Indicators
   
   • Because
   • Since
   • Let us suppose that
   • As indicated by
   • First, …
2. Claim Indicators
   
   • Hence
   • I conclude that
   • For these reasons
   • In consequence

Question 5

What are some characteristics of premises?

Answer 5

• Every premise is an explicit or implicit assumption
  
  • Assumptions or suppositions are component of every argument
    
    • ​An implicit assumption is a presupposition
      
      • ASK: What is being assumed in order to show that the claim is true?

Question 6

What is to evaluate an argument?

Answer 6

To evaluate an argument is to critically examine the relation between its evidence and its claim, assessing whether the principles of good reasoning are violated.

For an argument to be good in the fullest sense it must accord with all of the principles of good reasoning, not just to one.

Question 7

What is the cardinal principle of good reasoning?

Answer 7

The truth of a claim needs to follow from the truth of its evidence.

Question 8

What is a cogent argument?

Answer 8

An argument that accords with all the principles of good reasoning.

Question 9

What is a fallacy?

Answer 9

An error in reasoning.

Question 10

What is a fallacious argument?

Answer 10

An argument that violates a principle of good reasoning.

Question 11

What is the RIFUT rule?

Answer 11

An mneumonic device that embodies all of the principles of good reasoning that applies to arguments. If it violates any of these, the argument is fallacious.

Question 12

Name the parts of the RIFUT rule

Answer 12

• Relevant to the claim logically
• Independent of the claim
• Free of dubious assumptions
• Unambiguous, and
• True

Question 13

Explain the T (Step 2)

Answer 13

• Are the premises True?
• Is it consistent? Can they all be true at the same time?
  
  • If not, they are contradicting

Question 14

Explain the I (Step 3)

Answer 14

• You can’t have among your premises a premise that restates the conclusion of the argument, this would be circular reasoning, or “begging the question.”
  
  • you need to show that your conclusion is true.

Question 15

Explain the U (Step 4)

Answer 15

The ambiguous premise is that one which in some points consist of obscure words, misleading idioms, perplexing sentences and/or words whose meaning shift over the course of the argument.

Question 16

What is one Fallacy of Ambiguity?

Answer 16

• The Fallacy of Equivocation
  
  • Two different meanings of one word are used in the argument.

Question 17

Explain the F (Step 5)

Answer 17

You can’t be free of assumptions in a premise, but you should be free of dubious assumptions

• This is an assumption that is both unproven and unreasonable.

Question 18

What are some Fallacies of Presumption?

Answer 18

1. Fallacy of Composition
2. Fallacy of Division
3. Fallacy of False Dilemma (black-and-white fallacy)

Question 19

Explain the Fallacy of Composition

Answer 19

Occurs when one assumes that because every part of a whole (or every member of a class) has such-and-such attribute, the whole itself (or the class itself) must have that attribute too

Question 20

Explain the Fallacy of Division

Answer 20

When one assumes that what is true of the whole must be true of the parts.

Question 21

Explain the Fallacy of False Dilemma

Answer 21

When someone oversimplifies a complex issue by assuming that there are only two (or a few) sides to it, and then demands that the audience choose between these limited alternatives.

Question 22

Explain the R (Step 6)

Answer 22

Does the argument commit a non sequitur?

• Occurs when the evidence is not logically relevant to the truth of a claim.

Question 23

What are some Fallacies of Relevance?

Answer 23

1. Ad Hominem (to the person)
2. Ad Populum (to the people)
3. Appeal to ignorance (Argumentum ad ignorantiam)
4. Appeal to inappropriate authority
5. Genetic fallacy
6. Straw man
7. Slippery slope
8. Irrelevant conclusion (ignoratio elenchi)

Question 24

Explain the Ad Hominem Fallacy

Answer 24

When a person attacks another in order to show that what the other person said is wrong, false, or should not be taken seriously.

Question 25

Explain the Ad Populum Fallacy

Answer 25

* When one directs an appeal to the people in order to win their assent to a conclusion unsupported by evidence * Whipping the emotions of the audience * Truth is not determined by head count

Question 26

Explain the Appeal to Ignorance Fallacy (argumentum ad ignorantiam)

Answer 26

When one argues either that a claim is true because it has not been proved to be false, or that a claim is false because it has not been proven to be true.

Question 27

Explain the Fallacy of Appeal to Inappropriate Authority

Answer 27

When one appeals to the testimony of an expert in matter outside the domain of that authority’s special field * This is different than just reporting what someone says

Question 28

Explain the Genetic Fallacy

Answer 28

Whenever someone assesses the value of something (good or bad) on the basis of its origins.

Question 29

Explain the Straw Man Fallacy

Answer 29

Attacking a misrepresentation or exaggeration of your adversary's *actual* position.

Question 30

Explain the Slippery Slope Fallacy

Answer 30

When one *falsely* claims that adopting a particular view or course of action will result in inevitable and undesirable consequences.

Question 31

Explain the Irrelevant conclusion (ignoratio elenchi) Fallacy

Answer 31

When the specific relevance-related error in reasoning cannot be named. * Sophie is a cat, therefore the word “puppy” has five letters.