3: Social perception Flashcards
(109 cards)
1
Q
What is social perception?
A
How we come to understand other people.
2
Q
What is the speed of social perception?
A
People decide quickly what others are like, based on minimal information.
3
Q
What are the 3 types of information we use in social perception? (Hing: RPS)
A
- Roles
- Physical cues
- Salience
4
Q
Define the purpose of roles as a source of info in social perception.
A
People think of others within a role first, and later according to traits.
5
Q
Define the purpose of physical cues as a source of info in social perception.
A
Appearance and behaviour are determinants of first impressions.
6
Q
Define the purpose of salience as a source of info in social perception.
A
People pay attention to the figure rather than ground.
7
Q
What are the 4 most common salient cues as a source of info in social perception?
(Hint: BNNM)
A
- Brightness
- Noise
- Novelty
- Motion
8
Q
What are the 4 effects of salience?
Hing: DIPP
A
- Draws attention.
- Influences perceptions of causality.
- Produces extreme judgments.
- Produces more consistency.
9
Q
Define salience:
A
The quality of being particularly noticeable or important; prominence.
10
Q
We move quickly form observable information to ____ _________.
A
We move quickly form observable information to trait inferences.
11
Q
Trait inferences are __________.
A
Trait inferences are economical.
12
Q
Trait inferences occur ___________.
A
Trait inferences occur automatically.
13
Q
What do we use to infer traits from other traits? (Hing: IPT)
A
Implicit Personality Theories
14
Q
What are the 2 dimensions of traits we observe? (Hint: CI)
A
- Competence
2. Interpersonal qualities.
15
Q
When we automatically perceive stimuli as part of a category, this is called:
A
categorisation.
16
Q
What are the 3 consequences of categorisation?
A
- Category-based social judgments.
- Speeds up processing time.
- Leads to errors.
17
Q
Impressions ranging from category-based to individuated is a dual process. This is know as the:
(Hing: CMoIF)
A
Continuum Model of Impression Formation
18
Q
What are the 2 main reasons we use category-based inferences in the Continuum Model of Impression Formation?
A
- Easy.
2. Quick.
19
Q
What are the 3 main reasons we use individuated information in the Continuum Model of Impression Formation?
A
- We are motivated to be accurate.
- A person doesn’t fit our categories.
- We wish to know the person better.
20
Q
We move quickly from observation of appearance and behaviour, to inferences about personality. This is known as:
A
integrating impressions.
21
Q
When integrating impressions, negative traits affect impressions more than positive ones. This is knows as the:
A
negativity effect.
22
Q
When integrating impressions, overall, we tend to evaluate others positively. This is know as:
A
positivity bias.
23
Q
When integrating impressions, averaging is used to combine separate pieces of information about people. This is known as:
(Hint: TAP)
A
The Averaging Principle.
24
Q
When integrating impressions, why do we use a weighted averaging model?
A
Because it provides the best predictions.
25
When integrating impressions, people tend to form evaluatively consistent impression of others. This is know as the:
halo effect.
26
The social perceiver uses information to arrive at causal explanations for events. It examines what information is gathered and how it is combined to form a causal judgment. This is called:
Attribution Theory.
27
People are naive psychologists trying to make sense of the social world. People tend to see cause and effect relationships, even where there is none out of a need to understand their environment.
Who proposed this idea?
Heider (1958)
28
According to Heider (1958), what are the 2 types of attributions we make under Attribution Theory?
1. Internal (dispositional) attributions.
| 2. External (situational) attributions.
29
We notice and think more about more than one piece of information when we form an impression of another person.
This is known as the: ___________ ______ and was proposed by _____ (1967) (1973).
We notice and think more about more than one piece of information when we form an impression of another person.
This is known as the: Covariation Model and was proposed by Kelley (1967) (1973).
30
According to Kelley's Covariation Model, we focus on how behaviour 'covaries' (changes) across time, place, different actors and targets. By discovering changes in peoples behaviour, this allows us to:
choose an internal or external attribution to their behaviour.
31
According to Kelley's Covariation Model, what are the 3 pieces of information we use to choose internal or external attributions?
(Hint: CDC)
1. Consensus
2. Distinctiveness
3. Consistency
32
According to Attribution Theory, what is the question we ask ourselves when examining consistency to choose internal or external attributions?
Is the response consistent over time?
33
According to Attribution Theory, what is the question we ask ourselves when examining consensus to choose internal or external attributions?
Do other people have similar responses?
34
According to Attribution Theory, what is the question we ask ourselves when examining distinctiveness to choose internal or external attributions?
Does the person response similarly to other similar stimuli?
35
According to the Covariation Model, how might the information we use lead to incorrect judgments?
Not all information about all 3 dimensions may be available, but we still make attributions anyway.
36
According to the Covariation Model, which 2 sources of information are used more than the third?
___________ and __________ are used more than ___________.
Consistency and distinctiveness are used more than consensus.
37
Research suggests there are _____ in our causal attributions.
Research suggests there are biases in our causal attributions.
38
We are more likely to attribute other behaviour to their dispositions rather than the situation. This is called the:
(Hint: FAE)
Fundamental Attribution Error
39
People make _________ attributions automatically, and then only later use ________ information to discount it. People don't tend to consider the _______ unless the context is very compelling or ______.
People make dispositional attributions automatically, and then only later use situational information to discount it. People don't tend to consider the situation unless the context is very compelling or salient.
40
What are the 3 main reasons a person may decide to consider the external attributions after initially considering the internal ones?
1. Choosing to consciously slow down and think carefully before reaching a judgment.
2. Being motivated to reach an accurate judgment.
3. They are suspicious about another persons behaviour.
41
What are the 2 main cultural differences (East vs. West) in social perception?
1. Western cultures stress individual autonomy.
| 2. Eastern cultures emphasise group autonomy.
42
What is individual autonomy?
A person who is self-contained and independent.
43
What is group autonomy?
A sense of self comes from group belongingness.
44
What thinking style focus on objects or people?
Analytic thinking style.
45
What cultural values are associated with an analytic thinking style?
Western culture.
46
What thinking style focuses on the 'whole picture', that being the person/object and relationships between people?
Holistic thinking style
47
What cultural values are associated with a holistic thinking style?
Eastern culture.
48
People in _______ cultures tend to infer dispositions from behaviours, but people in ________ cultures are more likely to take the situation into account.
People in all cultures tend to infer dispositions from behaviours, but people in Eastern cultures are more likely to take the situation into account.
49
According to Jones and Nisbett (1972), we tend to attribute others behaviour to their dispositions, but our own behaviour to our situations. This is called:
(Hint: AOB)
Actor Observer Bias
50
According to Jones and Nisbett (1972) theory of Actor Observer Bias, what are 'actors' and 'observers'?
Actors look at the situation.
| Observers look at the actors.
51
According to Jones and Nisbett (1972) theory of Actor Observer Bias, in what way do 'actors' and 'observers' have access to different information?
Actors have more background information about themselves.
52
When we take credit for our successes but deny blame for our failures, this is called the:
(Hint: SSAB)
Self-Serving Attributional Bias
53
What are the 3 main reasons we make self-serving attributions?
1. We want to maintain self esteem.
2. We want others to think well of and admire us.
3. We know more about the situational factors that affect our own behaviour than we do about other people's.
54
Our judgments are more accurate about:
external attributes.
55
Our judgments are less accurate about:
internal states.
56
Why are we fairly accurate in our perception of emotions?
Facial expressions of emotions are part of our evolutionary heritage.
57
What are the 7 types of emotion?
| Hint: SAD FISH
1. Sadness
2. Anger
3. Disgust/contempt
4. Fear
5. Interest
6. Surprise
7. Happiness
58
We easily distinguish emotions that are at least __ categories apart.
We easily distinguish emotions that are at least 3 categories apart.
59
What are the 2 dimensions of emotion?
1. Pleasantness
| 2. Arousal
60
What is the easiest dimension of emotion to distinguish?
Pleasantness
61
What are the 6 universal expressions of emotion?
| Hint: SAD FHS
```
Sadness
Anger
Disgust
Fear
Happiness
Surprise
```
62
Facial expressions of emotion:
All humans _______ or ______ emotions in the same way.
All humans encode or express emotions in the same way.
63
Facial expressions of emotion:
All humans ______ or _______ with equal accuracy.
All humans decode or interpret with equal accuracy.
64
Who argued that facial expressions acquired evolutionary significance as they allowed us to communicate our emotional states?
Darwin (1872)
65
Who's studies indicated that the ability to interpret the 6 major emotions is cross-cultural? Meaning, it is part of being human and not a product of culture?
Paul Ekman.
66
Describe Ekman and Friesen (1971) cross-cultural study into human emotional expression.
Traveled to New Guinea to study the decoding ability of a preliterate tribe that had no contact with Western civilisation.
They told the Fore people brief stories with emotional content. Then they showed them photos of American men and women expressing the 6 major emotions and asked them to match the emotions to the stories.
They were as accurate as Western subjects had been.
67
The 6 major emotions are the first to occur in human development. What 4 other emotions develop later and show less universality across cultures?
1. Pride
2. Embarrassment
3. Guilt
4. Shame
68
Facial expressions of emotions:
List 3 reasons decoding can be complicated:
1. Affect blends.
2. People trying to mask emotions.
3. Culture.
69
Facial expression of emotions:
What are affect blends?
When different parts of the face express different emotions.
70
Facial expressions of emotions:
According to Ekman, display rules are specific to each culture and dictate what kinds of emotional expressions people are supposed to show.
Facial expressions of emotions:
According to Ekman, ______ rules are specific to each ______ and dictate what kinds of emotional expressions people are supposed to show.
71
________ cultural norms discourage emotional displays in ______, such as grieving or crying, but allow the facial display of such emotions in ______.
American cultural norms discourage emotional displays in men, such as grieving or crying, but allow the facial display of such emotions in women.
72
What are the difference in display rules when smiling in Japanese and Western women?
Japanese women hide their smile behind their hands, whereas, Western women smily broadly and often.
73
What are the difference in display rules for negative emotions in Japanese and Western culture?
Japanese people cover up negative facial expressions with smiles and laughter and show less facial expressions, whereas, Western people tend to show more negative facial expressions.
74
Small amounts of nonverbal behaviour can convey substantial amounts of information. What are the two channels of nonverbal communication?
1. Visible.
| 2. Paralinguistic.
75
In nonverbal communication, what are the 4 dimensions of visible channels of communication?
1. Facial expressions.
2. Eye contact.
3. Distance.
4. Gestures.
76
In nonverbal communication, what does eye contact tell us?
Interest levels (friend or threat)
77
In nonverbal communication, what does distance tell us?
Friendliness.
78
In nonverbal communication, which of the four dimensions of visible channels of communication vary by culture?
Gestures.
79
In nonverbal communication, what is paralanguage?
The variations in speech rather than its verbal content, such as emphasis and inflection used to give meaning to a statement.
80
Nonverbal communication:
The more channels of communication people have, the more _______ they are.
Nonverbal communication:
The more channels of communication people have, the more accurate they are.
81
Which channel of communication is most influential in humans?
Verbal.
82
Do people tend to be successful or unsuccessful liars? Why?
True emotions tend to leak out through our nonverbal channels because they are less controllable.
83
What are the 5 nonverbal giveaways that someone may be lying?
(Hint: BDSHH)
```
Blinking.
Dilated pupils.
Speech errors.
Hesitation.
Higher-pitched voices.
```
84
Nonverbal communication:
What are emblems? What are they determined by?
Gestures use with well-defined meanings and are determined by culture.
85
To understand other people, we observe their behaviour, but we also infer their feelings, traits and motives. We use general notions/schemas about which personality traits go together in one person. This is called:
Implicit Personality Theories
86
Where do Implicit Personality Theories come from?
General notions/schemas are shared by people in a culture and passed down generations.
87
We often think other people are more susceptible to attributional biases than we are ourselves. This is know as the:
Bias blind spot.
88
A description of the way in which people explain the causes of their now and others behaviour. This is known as:
Attribution theory.
89
Information about the extent to which other people behave the same way toward the same stimulus as the actor does, is known as:
Consensus information.
90
A theory that states that to form an attribution about what caused a persons behaviour, we systematically note the pattern between the presence or absence of possible causal factors and whether or not the behaviour occurs.
This is called the:
Covariation model.
91
To interpret the meaning of the nonverbal behaviour other people express, such as deciding that a pat on the back was an expression of condescension and not kindness. This is known as:
Decoding.
92
Culturally determined rules about which nonverbal behaviours are appropriate to display are called:
Display rules.
93
Information about the extent to which one particular actor behaves in the same way to different stimuli is called:
Distinctiveness information
94
Nonverbal gestures that have well-understood definitions within a given culture; usually having direct verbal translations, such as the OK sign are called:
emblems.
95
To express or emit nonverbal behaviour, such as smiling or patting someone on the back is know as:
encoding.
96
The inference that a person is behaving a certain way because of something about the situation he or she is in; the assumption that mot people would response in the same way in that situation is known as:
external attribution.
97
A type of schema people use to group various kinds of personality traits together; for example, many people believe that someone who is kind is generous as well. This is called:
Implicit Personality Theory
98
The inference that a person is behaving a certain way because of something about the person, such as attitude, character or personality is known as:
Internal attribution
99
The way in which people communicate, intentionally or unintentionally, without words; nonverbal cues include facial expressions, tone of voice, gestures, body position, movement, use of touch and gaze is known as:
Nonverbal communication.
100
The study of how we form impressions of and make inferences about other people is called:
Social perception.
101
What were the results of Becker et al. (2007) experiment on decoding facial expressions?
Participants were faster and more accurate at decoding angry expressions on male faces and happy expressions of female faces.
102
What were the results of Hoffman et al. (1986) experiment into how culture and language shape our impressions of others?
People formed an impression of other people that was consistent with the implicit personality theory contained in their language.
Chinese-English bilinguals when reading stories about people in English, formed an impression consistent with western implicit theory, the artistic personality.
Chinese-English bilinguals when reading stores about people in Chinese, formed an impression consistent with Chinese implicit theory, the shi gú.
103
What were the results of Jones and Harris (1967) experiment investigating the Fundamental Attribution Error?
Even when people knew the authors choice of essay topic was externally caused, they assumed that what he wrote reflected how he really felt about Castro. They made an internal attribution for his behaviour.
104
Describe Taylor and Fiske (1975) experiment in manipulating perceptual salience.
Procedure:
Results:
Procedure:
A seating arrangement of two actors and six researchers. Participants rated each others impact on the conversation.
Results:
People rated the actor they could see more clearly as having the larger role in conversation.
105
What were the results of Masuda et al. (2008) experiment investigating decoding facial expressions?
Americans would focus more on the facial expression of the central figure rather than those who are standing nearby them when describing the central figure's mood. Japanese people's response were influenced by those standing nearby the central figure when assessing their mood.
This was backed up with eye-trackers showing the Japanese participants spent more time looking at the background characters.
106
Describe what was coined by Lerner (1980) (1998) the 'belief in a just world'.
The assumption that people get what they deserve, and deserve what they get.
107
According to Furnham (1993) study, which 2 countries received the highest scores on the just world scale?
India
| South Africa
108
According to Furnham (1993) study, which 4 countries received moderate scores on the just world scale?
USA
Australia
Hong Kong
Zimbabwe
109
According to Furnham (1993) study, which 2 countries received the lowest scores on the just world scale?
UK
| Israele
