3.2.3.2 .1 - Scientific Processes Flashcards
(75 cards)
1
Q
What is an aim ?
A
- Aims are general statements that describe the purpose of an investigation
- E.g To investigate whether energy drinks make people more talkative
2
Q
What is an hypotheses ?
A
- it comes after an aim
- A hypothesis is a statement that is made at the start of a study and clearly describes the relationship between variables as stated by the theory.
3
Q
What can a hypothesis be ?
A
-Hypotheses can be directional or non-directional.
In a directional hypothesis the researcher makes clear the sort of difference that is anticipated between two conditions or two groups of people. For this reason, directional hypotheses include words like more or less, higher or lower, faster or slower, etc.
A non-directional hypothesis simply states that there is a difference between conditions or groups of people but, unlike in a directional hypothesis, the nature of the difference is not specified.
4
Q
What is random sampling ?
A
Random sample
A random sample is a sophisticated form of sampling in which all members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected.
The first step in selecting a random sample is to obtain a complete list of all members of the target population. Second, all of the names on the list are assigned a number. Finally, the actual sample is selected through the use of some lottery method (a computer/phone randomiser or picking numbers from a hat).
5
Q
What is a strength of random sampling ?
A
Strength - potentially unbiased , this means confounding or extraneous variables should be equally divided between the different groups enhancing internal validity.
6
Q
What is weakness of random sampling ?
A
- Can end with an unrepresentative sample
- ppts may refuse to take part - all
- time consuming
- difficult to conduct
7
Q
What is systematic sampling ?
A
- Systematic sampling is a sampling technique that uses a predetermined system to select the participants from a target group. For example, every fourth person in a list could be used in the sample.
8
Q
What is a strength of systematic sampling ?
A
- ## Objective method - researcher has no control over who is chosen (randomly selected)
9
Q
What are weakness of systematic sampling ?
A
- time consuming
- some ppts wouldnt want to take part
10
Q
What is stratified sample ?
A
- Stratified sampling is a sampling technique where the researcher divides or ‘stratifies’ the target group into sections, each representing a key group (or characteristic) that should be present in the final sample.
11
Q
What is a strength of stratified sample ?
A
- reduced sampling bias, better generalizability, and better representation of the population.
12
Q
What are weakness of stratified sampling ?
A
- It takes more time and resources to plan.
Care must be taken to ensure each key characteristic present in the population is selected across strata, otherwise this will design a biased sample.
13
Q
What is opportunity sampling ?
A
- Participants who are both accessible and willing to take part are targeted, e.g. employees from a conveniently located employer near the laboratory could be selected for the sample group.
14
Q
What is opportunity sampling ?
A
Participants who are both accessible and willing to take part are targeted, e.g. employees from a conveniently located employer near the laboratory could be selected for the sample group.
15
Q
What is a strength of opportunity sampling ?
A
This method is easy and inexpensive to carry out.
16
Q
What is the weakness of opportunity sampling ?
A
- The consequent sample may not be representative as it could be subject to bias (e.g. the conveniently located employer may undertake a selection process for job applicants, making it likely that employees possess certain similar characteristics that are unrepresentative of the wider target group).
17
Q
What is volunteer sampling ?
A
- Here the sample consists of people who have volunteered to be in the study.
18
Q
What is the strength of volunteer sampling ?
A
- This often achieves a large sample size through reaching a wide audience, for example with online advertisements.
19
Q
What is a weakness of volunteer sampling ?
A
- Those who respond to the call for volunteers may all display similar characteristics (such as being more trusting or cooperative than those who did not apply) thus increasing the chances of yielding an unrepresentative sample.
20
Q
What is a pilot study ?
A
- Pilot studies are small, trial versions of proposed studies to test their effectiveness and make improvements. They are helpful in identifying potential issues early, which can then be rectified before committing to the length and expense of a full investigation
21
Q
What are aims of a pilot study ?
A
- They ensure that the design and material researchers have selected are appropriate for their aims and also use it to help eliminate and control for evs
- This will increases the chances of conducting reliable and valid research therefore allowing strong conclusions from the results.
22
Q
What is repeated measures ?
A
- Repeated Measures design is an experimental design where the same participants participate in each independent variable condition. This means that each experiment condition includes the same group of participants.
23
Q
What is strength of repeated measures ?
A
- As the same participants are used in each condition, participant variables (i.e., individual differences) are reduced.
24
Q
What is weakness of repeated measures ?
A
There may be order effects. Order effects refer to the order of the conditions affecting the participants’ behavior. Performance in the second condition may be better because the participants know what to do (i.e., practice effect). Or their performance might be worse in the second condition because they are tired (i.e., fatigue effect). This limitation can be controlled using counterbalancing.
25
What is independent groups design ?
- The independent groups design is an experimental design whereby two groups are exposed to different experimental conditions. Usually half of the participants are assigned to the experimental group where they are exposed to a condition where the independent variable is manipulated.
26
What are strengths of independent groups design ?
- One advantage of using this design is that there are no order effects which affect the outcomes of the experiment.
- These happen when participants take part in both conditions of the experiment, and their performance differs across conditions as a result.
- For example, the practice at doing a memory task felt after the first condition could lead to better performance on the second memory task, irrespective of the manipulation of the independent variable.
27
What are the weaknesses of independent groups design ?
- One disadvantage of this design is differences between the experimental and control groups may be due to individual differences between participants., rather than the effect of the independent variable. - For example, due to chance, one group may have a better working memory than the other, and when given a memory task, that group will perform better, regardless of the independent variable manipulation, due to pre-disposed advantage. This could be mitigated with random sampling of participants.
28
What is matched pairs ?
- Matched pairs design is an experimental design where pairs of participants are matched in terms of key variables, such as age and IQ. One member of each pair is then placed into the experimental group and the other member into the control group.
29
What are some strengths of matched pairs ?
- Strengths
- Order effects will not be observed as participants only take part in one condition.
- The tailored participant-matching process reduces the risk of participant variables (individual differences) from affecting results between conditions.
30
What are some weaknesses of matched pairs ?
Weaknesses
Different participants need to be recruited for each condition, which is difficult and expensive.
Matching is a more complex process, and it will always be very difficult to match participants identically.
31
What are behavioural categories ?
- An observational technique wherein participants' possible behaviours are separated into more specific components. This allows for operationalisation of the behaviour. For example, splitting aggression into categories of “swearing” and “punching”.
32
Behavioural categories more
- must be observable measurable self evident (should not require further interpretation)
- categories should be exclusive and not overlap. e.g. smiling and grinning
33
What is event sampling ?
- Event sampling is used to sample behaviour in observational research. It is where an observer records the number of times a certain behaviour occurs.
34
Event sampling A03 -
- ☺ - useful when the target behaviour or event happens quite infrequently and could be used if time sampling was used.
- ☹ - However if it is too complex the observer may overlook important details if using event sampling.
35
What is time sampling ?
- Time sampling is a method of sampling behaviour in an observation study and is where an observer records behaviour at prescribed intervals.
36
Time sampling A03
- ☺- effective in reducing the number of observations that have to be made
- ☹ Causing that behaviour that is sampled might be unrepresentative of the observation as a whole
37
What are questionnaires ?
- Questionnaires are a written self-report technique where participants are given a pre-set number of questions to respond to. They can be administered in person, by post, online, over the telephone, or to a group of participants simultaneously.
38
How can questionnaires be sent ?
They can be administered in person, by post, online, over the telephone, or to a group of participants simultaneously.
39
What are the types of questionnaires ?
- open
- closed
40
What are open questionnaires ?
- Open questions – where there is no restriction on how participants make their response
e.g. ‘How does the sight of seeing dogs in a public place without a lead make you feel?’
41
What are closed questionnaires ?
- Closed questions – where there is a pre-determined set of answers to choose from
e.g. ‘Do you exercise?’ may have set responses of ‘yes/no’, or ‘I exercise 0/1/2/3+ times a week’)
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What are strengths of questionnaires ?
- Strengths
Questionnaires are a relatively cheap and quick way to gather a large amount of data.
- Since questionnaires can be completed privately (and often anonymously), responses may be more likely to be honest.
- Data is usually straightforward to analyse
-
43
What are weaknesses of questionnaires ?
- Social desirability issues may arise, where participants give incorrect responses to try to put themselves in a socially acceptable light.
Distributing questionnaires en masse (e.g. via post or the internet) means that any data collected relies on responses to be returned; response rates are often poor, plus it may be that only a certain type of person returns questionnaires, so generalising the sample of results to a large population can be unconvincing.
Questionnaires may be flawed if some questions are leading (i.e. they suggest a desired response in the way they are worded).
- If any questions are misunderstood, participants completing questionnaires privately cannot get clarification on the meaning/responding accurately from an experimenter, so may complete them incorrectly.
44
What are the three types of interviews ?
- Structured
- Unstructured
- Semi- structured
45
What are structured interviews ?
- Structured – where the interviewer has a set list of questions to lead the conversation, a framework which will be rigidly stuck to
46
What are unstructured interviews ?
Unstructured – where the interviewer may have a list of topics or questions, but has extra flexibility to lead the conversation further, should participant responses lead to deeper/more detailed discussion
47
What are semi-structured interviews ?
- Semi-structured interviews contain mostly prepared questions that can be supplemented with additional questions. - - - The interviewer can deviate from the original questions and therefore this type of interview typically produces rich qualitative data.
48
Structured interviews A03 -
- Strength - Straightforward to replicate due to standardised format.
- Format reduces differences between interviewers.
- Limitation - However - ted to deviate from the topics or explain questions and this will limit richness of data collected as well ad limit unexpected information.
49
Unstructured interviews A03 - strength
Strength -
- Unstructured interviews provide potential to gather rich and detailed information from each participant – more so than questionnaires.
- The conversational nature of unstructured interviews is best suited to discussing complex or sensitive issues, as participants are more likely to relax and give better responses as the dialogue flows.
50
Unstructured interviews A03 - Limitation
- Interview bias drawing conclusions may be difficult
- Social desirability bias can be a problem with self-report techniques, i.e. participants give responses that are thought to be the most socially acceptable, rather than necessarily truthful. (general)
51
What is an independent variable ?
- the only variable that should be changed or manipulated throughout an experiment
52
What is a dependent variable ?
- The dependent variable: the variable that is measured to determine the outcome of an experiment (the results)
53
What is extraneous variables ?
- Extraneous variables are any factors that intrude upon and adversely affect the DV (not the IV, which the researcher has specifically implemented) e.g temp
54
What are confounding variables ?
- Confounding variables can affect the DV and negatively impact the research findings
- Extraneous variables which - if not controlled - can become confounding variables
55
Explain operationalisation of variables
- Operationalising variables refers to how both the IV and the DV are put to work/implemented by the researcher (see also revision notes on hypotheses)
- Operationalising variables involves specifics on how each variable is to be manipulated (IV) and measured (DV)
56
Explain operationalisation of IV
- To operationalise the IV the researcher needs to set up and define each condition so that it is clear that a difference between the conditions is being investigated
E.g. participants in condition 1 drink 200ml of a caffeinated drink prior to a memory test;
57
Explain operationalisation of DV
- To operationalise the DV the researcher needs to design a procedure which enables relevant and appropriate data to be recorded/collected per participant with no ambiguity involved
E.g. the number of correctly recalled items from a list of 15 words
58
What is random allocation ?
- Random allocation of participants is an extremely important process in research.
- In order to assess the effect of one variable on another, all variables other than the variable to be investigated need to be controlled.
- Random allocation greatly decreases systematic error, so individual differences in responses or ability are far less likely to consistently affect results.
59
What is counterbalancing ?
- Counterbalancing is a method used to deal with extraneous effects caused by order effects that arise when using a repeated measures design.
The sample is split in half with one half completing the two conditions in one order and the other half completing the conditions in the reverse order. Eg, the first 10 participants would complete condition A followed by condition B but the remaining 10 participants would complete condition B then A. Any order effects should be balanced out by the opposing half of participants.
60
What is randomisation ?
- Randomisation is used in the presentation of trials to avoid any systematic errors that the order of the trials might present.
61
What is standardisation ?
- Standardisation refers to the process in which procedures used in research are kept the same. Great attention is taken to keep all elements of a procedure identical, so that methods are sensitive to any change in performance. Under these circumstances changes in data can be attributed to the I.V. In addition, it is far more likely that results will be replicated on subsequent occasions when research is standardised, which means that data reflects a meaningful pattern and was not a one-off chance result.
62
What are demand characteristics ?
- Demand characteristics occur when a participant tries to make sense of the research situation, and as a result changes their behaviour. This distorts results, as a participants might intentionally try to demonstrate what the researcher is investigating, or display the opposite (the screw you effect). Participants sometimes try to present themselves in a positive light rather than producing genuine responses/ behaviours, this is known as social desirability bias.
63
What is investigator effects ?
- Investigator Effects occur when the presence of the investigator themselves affects the outcome of the research. Eg. during an interview the participants might feel self-conscious or might be influenced by behavioural cues from the researcher (nodding, smiling, frowning etc.).
64
What are ethical issues ?
- Ethical issues in psychology arise when the research being conducted may impose some form of physical or psychological harm on the participants or the general population.
65
What are the number of issues researchers should be mindful of ?
- Confidentiality
- Informed consent
- Deception
- Debriefing
- Right to withdraw
- Protection of participants
66
Explain informed consent
- Participants must be briefed on objectives of the investigation and what will be required of them should they take part. In turn they must accept these conditions to proceed, and be put under no pressure to do so.
67
Explain Deception
- Generally, participants should not be misled during an investigation.
- However, sometimes participants need to be unaware of the true aims of an investigation - or even that they are participating in a study - to yield results that are considered valid (i.e. the data is a true reflection of what was supposed to be measured).
-This emphasises the need for participants to be debriefed at end of the study.
68
Explain Debriefing
- When a study ends, participants should be told the true motivations behind the investigation, and given the opportunity to clarify any misunderstandings with the researchers.
-It is also essential to ensure that the participants leave having not suffered long-lasting negative physical or mental effects, particularly where deception (see above) was utilised for the purposes of the experiment. - Having checked that participants are in a positive state of health, they should also be notified of relevant services such as counseling to seek, if partaking in the study presents negative effects.
69
Explain Right to withdraw
- As part of their briefing prior to giving consent to partake, participants must be informed that they can leave the study at any point if they wish, and are under no obligation to disclose a reason why if they do.
70
Explain Protection of participants
- It is the responsibility of the researcher to ensure that participants are not caused any long-term physical or mental damage.
-For instance, it may be that participants are temporarily caused distress, although research will be pre-approved by an ethics committee to ensure this is sufficiently minimized, and researchers are expected to take participants through a detailed debriefing (see debriefing).
71
Explain Confidentiality and Privacy
- Participants should remain anonymous so that data cannot be identified as theirs (e.g. their names should be withheld when data is reported).
- The right to privacy extends to the area where a study took place, so that there are no obvious clues about who the participants were.
72
What is the BPS
-BPS code of conduct
The British Psychological Society (BPS), like many other professional bodies, has its own BPS code of ethics and this includes a set of ethical guidelines. Researchers have a professional duty to observe these guidelines when conducting research
Guidelines are implemented by ethics committees in research institutions who often use a cost-benefit approach to determine whether particular
research proposals are ethically acceptable
73
How to deal with informed consent :
Dealing with informed consent
Participants should be issued with a consent letter or form detailing all relevant information
that might affect their decision to participate.
- Assuming the participant agrees, this is then
signed.
- For investigations involving children under 16, a signature of parental consent is required. There are other ways to obtain consent, which are described on the right.
74
How to deal with deception and protection from harm
Dealing with deception and protection from harm
- At the end of a study, participants should be given a full debrief. Within this, participants should be made aware of the true aims of the investigation and any details they were not supplied with during the study, such as the existence of other groups or experimental
conditions.
- Participants should also be told what their data will be used for and must be given the
right to withdraw during the study and the right to withhold data if they wish.
- This is particularly important if retrospective consent is a feature of the study (see right).
- Participants may have natural concerns related to their performance within the
investigation, and so should be reassured that their behaviour was typical or normal. In
extreme cases, if participants have been subject to stress or embarrassment, they may
require counselling, which the researcher should provide.
75
How to deal with confidentiality
Dealing with confidentiality
If personal details are held these must be protected. - - - However it is more usual to simply record no personal details, i.e. maintain anonymity. Researchers usually refer to participants using numbers or initials when writing up the investigation.
- In a case study, psychologists often use initials when describing the individual or individuals involved e.g. HM.
- Finally, it is standard practice that during briefing and debriefing, participants are reminded that their data will be protected throughout the process and told that the data will not be shared with other researchers.
