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From Flashcardlet > Ch. 2, Lecture 2 > Flashcards

Ch. 2, Lecture 2 Flashcards

0
Q

(chemical reactions)

Synthesis Reactions

A

• Two or more small molecules combine to form a larger one.

A+B—>AB

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1
Q

(chemical reactions)

Decomposition Reactions

A

• Large molecule breaks down into two or smaller ones.

AB—>A+B

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2
Q

(chemical reactions)

Exchange Reactions

A

• Two molecules exchange atoms or group of atoms

AB+CD—>ABCD—>AC+BD

Stomach acid (HCl) and sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) from the pancreas combine to form NaCl and H2CO3.

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3
Q

(chemical reactions)

Reversible Reactions

A
  • Can go in either direction under different circumstances.

* Symbolized with double headed arrow

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4
Q

(chemical reactions)

CO2+H2O->H2CO3->HCO3-+H+
<- <-

A
  • Most common equation discussed in the book

* Respiratory, urinary, and digestive physiology

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5
Q

Metabolism

A

• All the chemical reactions of the body

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6
Q

(metabolism)

Catabolism

A

• Energy-storing (exergonic) synthesis reactions

 - breaks covalent bonds
 - produces smaller molecules
 - releases useful energy
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7
Q

(metabolism)

Anabolism

A

• Energy-storing (endergonic) synthesis reactions

  - requires energy input
  - production of protein or fat
  - driven by energy that catabolism releases
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8
Q

(Metabolism)

Catabolism and anabolism are-

A

• Inseparably linked

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9
Q

Reaction Rates

A

• Basis for chemical reactions is molecular motion and collisions

- Reactions occur when molecules collide with enough force and the correct orientation rates are affected by-
- concentration
- temperature
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10
Q

(reaction rates)

Catalysts

A

• Substances that temporarily bond to reactants, hold them in favorable position to react with each other, and may change the shapes of reactants in ways that make them more likely to react.

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11
Q

(reaction rates)

Enzymes

A

• Most important biological catalysts

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12
Q

Inorganic Molecules

A

• Smaller molecules like water and oxygen that lack carbon and hydrogen.

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13
Q

Water (1)

A

• Polar covalent bonds and V-shaped molecule gives water a set of properties that account for its ability to support life.

  - solvency
  - cohesion
  - adhesion
  - chemical reactivity 
  - thermal stability
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14
Q

Water (2)

A

• Water helps stabilize the internal temperature of the body.
Has high heat capacity—the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1g of a substance by 1 degrees Celsius
- Hydrogen bonds inhibit temperature increases by inhibiting molecular motion
- Water absorbs heat without changing temperature very much.

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15
Q

Acid

A

• Proton donor (releases H+ ions in water)

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16
Q

Base

A

• Proton acceptor (accepts H+ ions)

- Releases OH- ions in water

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17
Q

pH

A

• Measure derived from the molarity of H+

  • a pH of 7.0 is neutral pH (H+=OH-)
  • a pH of less than 7 is acidic solution (H+>OH-)
  • a pH of greater than 7 is basic solution (H+<OH-)
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18
Q

Buffers

A
  • Weak acid/salt compounds
  • Neutralizes either strong acid or strong base
  • Sodium bicarbonate is very important in humans
19
Q

Antacids

A
  • A basic compound that neutralizes acid and forms a salt

* Tums, Rolaids, etc.

20
Q

Organic Chemistry

A

• The study of compounds containing carbon and hydrogen

21
Q

Four categories of carbon compounds:

A
  • Carbohydrates
  • Lipids
  • Proteins
  • Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids
22
Q

Carbohydrates

A
  • Hydrophilic organic molecule
  • Most important energy source in body
  • General formula:
    • (CH2O)n, n = number of carbon atoms
    • 2:1 ratio of hydrogen to oxygen
23
Q

Major Types of Carbohydrates

A
  • Monosaccharides
  • Disaccharides
  • Polysaccharides
24
Q

(carbohydrates)

Three Important Monosaccharides

A
  • Glucose
  • Galactose
  • Fructose

• Same molecular formula:
- C6H12O6
(all isomers of each other)

• Produced by digestion of complex carbohydrates
- Glucose is blood sugar

25
Q

(carbohydrates)

Disaccharide

A

• Sugar molecule composed of two monosaccharides

26
Q

(carbohydrates)

3 Important Disaccharides

A

• Sucrose—table sugar
- glucose + fructose

• Maltose—grain products
- glucose + glucose

• Lactose—sugar in milk
- glucose + galactose

27
Q

(carbohydrates)

• Three polysaccharides of interest in humans

                          GLYCOGEN
A

• Energy storage polysaccharide in humans

     - made by cells of liver, muscles, brain, uterus
     - liver produces glycogen after a meal when    glucose level is high, then breaks it down between meals to maintain blood glucose levels
28
Q

Lipids

A

• Hydrophobic organic molecule

   - composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
   - with a high of hydrogen to oxygen

• Less oxidized than carbohydrates, and thus has more calories/gram.

29
Q

Five Primary Types of Lipids in Humans

A
  • Fatty acids
  • Triglycerides
  • Phospholipids
  • Eicosanoids
  • Steroids
30
Q

Carbon Compounds and Functional Groups (1)

A

• Four valence electrons
- binds with other atoms that can provide it with four more electrons to fill its valence shell

• Carbon atoms bind readily with each other to form carbon backbones

  - form long chains, branched molecules, and rings
  - form covalent bonds with hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and other elements
31
Q

Carbon Compounds and Functional Groups (2)

A
  • Small clusters of atoms attached to carbon backbone
  • Determines many of the properties of organic molecules
  • Hydroxyl, methyl, carboxyl, amino, phosphate
32
Q

Lipids: Fatty Acids

A

• Chain of 4 to 24 carbon atoms
- carboxyl (acid) group on one end, methyl group on the other, and hydrogen bonded along the sides

• Classified
- saturated: carbon atoms saturated with hydrogen

  - unsaturated: contains C=C bonds without  hydrogen 
  - essential fatty acids: obtained from diet, body cannot synthesize
33
Q

Triglycerides

A

• Neutral fats
- three fatty acids covalently bonded to three-carbon alcohol called glycerol

• Triglycerides at room temperature
- when liquid, called oils
• often polyunsaturated fats from plants
- when solid, called fat
• saturated fats from animals

• Primary function: energy storage, insulation, and shock absorption (adipose tissue)

34
Q

Phospholipids

A
  • Similar to neutral fat except that one fatty acid is replaced by a phosphate group
  • Structural foundation of cell membrane
  • Amphiphilic
    - fatty acid "tails" are hydrophobic
- phosphate "head" is hydrophilic
35
Q

Proteins

A

• Greek word meaning “of first importance”
- most versatile molecules in the body

• Protein: a polymer of amino acids

• Amino acid: central carbon with three attachments
- amino group (NH2), carboxyl group
(—COOH), and radical group (R group)

• Amino acids differ only in the R group

36
Q

(protein structure)

Conformation

A

• Unique, three-dimensional shape of protein crucial to function
- ability to reversible change their conformation
• enzyme function
• muscle contraction
• opening and closing of cell membrane pores

37
Q

(protein structure)

Denaturation

A

• Extreme conformational change that destroys function

    - extreme heat of pH
    - Example: when you cook an egg
38
Q

Proteins (1)

A

• Structure
- Keratin— tough structural protein
• gives strength to hair, nails, and skin surface

• Communication
- some hormones and other cell to cell signals
- receptors to which signal molecules bind
• Ligand- any hormone or molecule that reversibly binds to a protein

• Membrane Transport

 - channels in cell membranes that governs what passes through
 - Carrier proteins— transport solute particles to other side of membrane
39
Q

Proteins (2)

A

• Recognition and protection

   - immune recognition 
   - antibodies
   - clotting proteins

• Movement
- Motor proteins—molecules with the ability to change shape repeatedly

• Cell adhesion

   - proteins bind cells together
   - immune cells to bind to cancer cells
   - keeps tissues from falling apart
40
Q

Enzymes

A

• Chemical reactions in cells cannot start without help

     - activation energy is the amount of energy needed to get a reaction started
     - enzymes are protein catalysts that lower the activation energy of reactions facilitating interaction
41
Q

Enzymes Structure and Action

A

• Reusability of Enzymes
- enzymes are not consumed by the reactions

• Astonishing Speed
- one enzyme molecule can consume millions of substrate molecules per minute

• Factors that Change Enzyme Shape

    - pH and temperature
    - alters or destroys the ability of the enzyme to bind to substrate 
    - temperature optimum for human enzymes—body temperature (37 degrees Celsius)
42
Q

ATP, Other Nucleotides, and Nucleic Acids

A

• Three components of nucleotides

    - nitrogenous base (single or double carbon-nitrogen ring)
    - sugar (monosaccharide) 
    - one or more phosphate groups
43
Q

Adenosine Triphosphate

A

• Body’s most important energy-transfer molecule

• Briefly stores energy gained from exergonic
reactions

• Releases it within seconds for physiological work

• Holds energy in covalent bonds
- second and third phosphate groups have high energy bonds (~)

44
Q

Nucleic Acids

A

• Polymers of nucleotides

45
Q

(nucleic acids)

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

A
  • 100 million to 1 billion nucleotides long
  • Constitutes Genes
      - instructions for synthesizing all of the body's proteins 
  - transfers hereditary information from cell to cell and generation to generation
46
Q

(nucleic acids)

RNA (ribonucleic acid)

A

• Three types:

  • mRNA
  • rRNA
  • tRNA
  • 70 to 10,000 nucleotides long
  • Carries out genetic instruction for synthesizing proteins
  • assembles amino acids in the right order to produce proteins

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