11: Motivation and Emotion Flashcards
What is motivation?
Motivation:
- Influences direction, persistence, and vigor of goal-directed behaviour
- Goals can be anything from “being the best at X” to simply getting something to eat
How do people become motivated?
Drive Theory:
- Homeostasis: Internal physiological equilibrium (balance) that the body strives to maintain
- Disrupted homeostasis ⇒ “drives” (internal tension) ⇒ motivated to act in ways to reduce tension (drive)
- Drive helps to maintain homeostasis
- eg. tissue deficits ⇒ “drive” to eat
- Allostasis: motivation in anticipation of future needs
Incentive Theory:
- environmental factor “pulls” you to do X
- You want the incentive, therefore you do X
- eg. getting good grade = incentive to study
- not neccessarily biological need, but a desire
Some behaviours (eg. eating) can be explained by drive AND/OR incentive theory
Expectancy Theory:
- some incentives hold more “value”
- motivation = expectancy x incentive value
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Expectancy: how much you believe a given behaviour will actually lead to the goal (incentive)
- eg. Beth: minimal effort ⇒ C grade (low incentive)
Harry: minimal effort ⇒ C grade (low expectancy)
James: studies hard ⇒ A grade (high on BOTH)
- eg. Beth: minimal effort ⇒ C grade (low incentive)
Differentiate between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation.
What is the overjustification effect?
Extrinsic: motivation to obtain an external reward, or avoid external punishment
- playing high school football to seem cool
- painting to sell the work
Intrinsic: performing an activity because you want to (it’s enjoyable); internal motivation
- playing high school football because you enjoy it
- painting as a hobby
**Overjustification effect: **
- Some bheaviours can be partially motivated by extrinsic *and *intrinsic factors
- Giving a person an extrinsic reward (other than verbal praise) for something they intrinsically enjoy tend to decrease intrinsic motivation and also the frequency of the behaviour
What are the 2 types of needs of motivation?
Hint: Think Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Deficiency needs:
- motivate actions related to physical, social survival
- food, safety, affiliation, approval
Growth needs:
- motivate us to develop our potential
- knowledge, beauty, self-actualization
- Self-Actualization is the ultimate human motive - the need to be very best version of oneself
What is the self-determination theory?
Self-Determination Theory
Modern humanistic theory
Basically, says that psychological well-being requires you to feel in control of your life - esp the 3 needs:
1. Competence
- need to master new challenges, skills
2. Autonomy
- need to be in control of your own decisions
(free choice, self-determination)
3. Relatedness
- desire to form meaningful bonds with others
What is a basal metabolism?
Metabolism:
- Rate of energy/caloric utilization
-
Basal metabolism:
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resting, continuous energy needs of body cells
- ie. number of calories burned while you are at rest, in a neutral-temperature env
- Accounts for ~66% of body’s energy demands
-
resting, continuous energy needs of body cells
What is the difference between Set Point and Settling Point Theories?
Set Point Theory:
- Idea that there is a given point (weight range, fat lvl) that each of our bodies “thinks” is optimal
- Essentially, despite your diet, your body tries to return you back to these values
- diet, diet, diet ⇒ binge, binge, binge
Settling Point Theory:
- Similar idea, but body doesn’t return to set point, but “settles” on a new point
- eat little → more efficient metabolism → stop loss
- eat much → less efficient metabolism → stop gain
How do the following molecules affect hunger/satiety:
- Glucose, CCK, Ghrelin, Leptin, Neuropeptide Y
Glucose:
- Body’s (and esp. brain’s) major source of immediately-useable fuel (some stored)
- Hypothalamus, liver monitor blood glucose lvls
- when low, liver converts stored molecules to glucose
- drop-rise pattern of blood glucose seems to be involved in initiating hunger
CCK (cholecystokinin):
- Hormone released by small intestine → brain (satiety)
- Act as appetite suppressant
Ghrelin:
- Released by small intestine & stomach
- MAJOR signal for hunger in humans
- Increases hunger; also inc thoughts/mental images of food (esp. of favourite meal)
- Highest lvls before meals; inc wi/ pictures/smell
Leptin:
- Hormone secreted by fat cells → brain
- Decreases appetite & inc energy expenditure
- Not a short-term signals of fullness (like CCK)
Neuropeptide Y:
- Secreted in paraventricular nucleus(PVN) - structure within hypothalamus
- PVN integrate both short-term and long-term signals to influence metabolism
- Neuropeptide Y - a powerful appetite stimulant
- Rats w/ 3 injections/day to PVN tripled fat mass and got to 6x their weight in 10 days!
- Leptin inhibits neurons that release neuropeptide Y
How do stress, attention, taste, and variety affect food consumption?
Stress:
- Stress modulates ghrelin → inc hunger
- Recall allostasis:
- Stress suggests that you view an upcoming situation as somehow threatening
- Evolutionarily, we typically deal with this by stokcing up on food to better meet the threat
**Attention: **
- Distracted eating → typically eat more
- Wansink et al. (2005) - bottomless soup bowl
- “eat as much as you like, until you feel full”
- Half of subjects had the bowl continually refilled from a tube at the bottom of the bowl, without them noticing
- Ate 70% more than those who refilled own bowl
- Yet, felt no more full and believed they ate the same amount as the others
**Food Taste & Variety: **
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Food taste:
- __Good taste:
- positive reinforcement for eating
- usu inc food consumption
- dopamine, anterior cingulate cortex
- __Good taste:
-
Food variety:
- __Same thing over & over:
- loses incentive value
- Greater variety (within OR between meals)
- consume more food
- __Same thing over & over:
Describe social facilitation, modelling, and impression management.
Social Context:
Social facilitation:
- Hosts, grandmothers, etc. encourages ppl to take 2nd/3rd helping → eat more
- More time spent at the table → continue to nibble
Modelling:
- Eat what other people eat → more OR less
- ie. interview lunch vs. family meal
Impression management:
- Self-conscious control of behaviour so that one will be seen a certain way → typically eat less
What is Unit Bias?
Unit Bias:
- Tendency to assume that the unit for sale is an appropriate amount to consume
When men & women are asked to rate the ideal male and female bodies (and what the other sex thinks is ideal) what are the trends?
Fallon & Rozin (1985)
Women’s beliefs:
- think female ideal is quite thin
- think men prefer thinner than they actually do
- think that they are quite a bit heavier than ideal
Men’s beliefs:
- think male ideal is quite muscular
- think women prefer more muscular than they do
- think that they are quite close to the ideal
Results:
- men’s belief keeps them satisfied with their figure
- women’s beliefs → feel pressure to lose weight
- ppl who perceive themselves as heavy have lower self-esteem
- shows that a disproportionate # of women think they are heavier than they “should be”
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Objectification Theory:
- Says Western culture teaches women to view their bodies as objects (much like an external observer)
- Restrict food in order to restore self-esteem
What are 3 reasons for the societal trend to increasing obesity?
Obesity:
Based on _Body Mass Index (BMI): _
Weight (kg)/ [height (m) x height (m)] = kg/m2
Overweight: BMI = 25 - 29.9
Obese: BMI = 30 <
Societal trend due to:
- Abundance of cheap, high-fat food
- Culture emphasizes “value” (supersize)
- Technological advances → more sedentary
What is activity anorexia? Is exercise a punishment or reward?
Anorexia nervosa
- Self-starvation
- Intense dissatisfaction with body
- Denial of consequences of extremely low weight
“Activity Anorexia”
- When body weight drops, both food AND exercise become more reinforcing
- Rats: limited food, unlimited exercise → spiral
- Wheel running is reinf.
BUT other studies show conditioned taste aversion (CTA) to tastes followed by exercise
STILL more studies show that rats show a conditioned place preference (CPP) for rooms in which they exercised vs didn’t exercise- Naloxone injection bloks opioid receptors (incl. endorphins), and also blocks CPP formation
- Exercise → endogenous opioid receptors
- Drugs (like opiates, amphetamines) also show conditioned aversions AND preferences
What are the 4 common reasons/motivations for sex in undergrads?
1. For physical reasons
- “the person’s physical appearnce turned me on”
- “I want to achieve an orgasm”
2. To help attain a goal
- “I wanted to get a raise”
- “I wanted to hurt an enemy”
3. For emotional reasons
- “I realized I was in love”
- “I wanted to intensify my relationship”
4. Because of insecurity
- “I felt obligated to”
- “I wanted to be nice”
Which groups of people engage in more frequent intercourse? masturbation?
Kinsey Reports (and other surveys):
Frequency of intercourse:
- Non-cohabitating (more ppl “never”/”few times a yr/month”)
- Married (more ppl “few times a month/week”)
- Cohabitating (more ppl “few times a week/4+/week”)
Frequency of masturbation:
- Once or more per week: Men: 25% Women: 10%
- Once or more per yr: Men: 60% Women: 45%
What are the 4 phases of the sexual response cycle?
Masters & Johnson (1953):
4 Stage Sexual Response Cycle
1. Excitement phase
- all interesting parts begin to swell (vasocongestion)
2. Plateau phase
- respiration, heart rate, muscle tension continue building
3. Orgasm phase
- rhythmic contractions
4. Resolution phase
- rapid return to “normal”
- males experience a refractory period
What are the 3 major motivational conflicts? Examples?
When something is attractive, you approach it
- close you get to the goal, desirability increases → stronger “pull” toward it
When something is undesirable, avoid it
- closer you get to the negative outcome, more repellent it becomes (stronger avoidance)
- avoidance increases faster than approach
Sometimes, need to balance motivations:
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Approach-Approach Conflict:
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Choosing bw 2 attractive options
- eg. Flying to Bermuda? or to Hawaii?
- Minimal stress: Moving toward one option makes it more desirable (dominates)
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Choosing bw 2 attractive options
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Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict:
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Choosing bw 2 undesirable oprions
- eg. hate one’s job, but hate being broke too
- Moving toward one option makes it seem more repellant → avoid → end up back where you started
- Typically, most try to stay balanced bw the negatives for as long as possible
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Choosing bw 2 undesirable oprions
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Approach-Avoidance Conflict:
-
Involved being both attracted to and repelled by the same option
- eg. want to ask someone out, but terrified of rejection
- eg. being with someone who is crazy, but super-hot
-
Most stressful: apprach, but then avoidance gets super-strong, so back off, but then negative aspects seem lower, so appraoch again..
- Typically, most people hang around the point of maximum conflict.
-
Involved being both attracted to and repelled by the same option
Other terms:
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Double Approach-Avoidance:
- Involved being both attracted to and repelled by each of 2 different options
- eg. Living in the country = fresh air, but long commute; and living in the city = noisy, but night life
- Involved being both attracted to and repelled by each of 2 different options
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Delay discounting:
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Incentive value decreases with greater delay
- eg. Study now to get good grade on the exam, or watch TV? - As exam approaches, incentive to study increases
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Incentive value decreases with greater delay
