4.1.1 Flashcards
(406 cards)
1
Q
What are the four types of pathogen?
A
- Bacteria
- viruses
- protoctista (Protista)
- Fungi
2
Q
Which type of bacteria causes communicable diseases?
A
Pathogens
3
Q
What are the two ways that bacteria can be classified?
A
- Basic shapes
- cell walls
4
Q
How can bacteria be classified by their basic shape?
A
- Rod shaped (bacilli)
- spherical (cocci)
- comma shaped (vibrios)
- spiralled (spirilla)
- corkscrew (spirochaetes)
5
Q
How can bacteria be identified by their cell walls?
A
Two types:
- gram-positive bacteria: blue/purple under light microscope (Staphylococcus aureus MRSA)
- gram-negative bacteria: red (e.coli)
6
Q
Why is knowing the type of cell wall of a bacteria useful?
A
Because it affects how bacteria reacts to different antibiotics
7
Q
What is an antibiotic?
A
Compound that kills or inhibits the growth of bacteria
8
Q
What is a virus? What is the structure of the virus?
A
- Nonliving infectious agents
- some genetic material surrounded by protein
9
Q
How do viruses cause communicable diseases?
A
Invade living cells
Take over biochemistry of the host cell to make more viruses
Reproduce rapidly and evolve by developing adaptations to the host (successful pathogens)
10
Q
What are the viruses that attack bacteria?
A
Bacteriophages
They take over bacterial cells and use them to replicate whilst destroying the bacteria
11
Q
What is protoctista?
A
Eukaryotic organisms with a wide variety of feeding methods
12
Q
What do protoctista cause?
A
Parasitic diseases that use people/animals as a host
May need a vector to transfer them to the host
13
Q
What is fungi?
A
Eukaryotic organisms that are mostly multicellular
14
Q
What do fungi do to an organism?
A
-They feed on dead or decaying matter but some are parasitic so can feed on living organisms
15
Q
How can fungi kill a plant?
A
Often infect plant leaves, stopping them from photosynthesising, quickly killing the plant
16
Q
How can fungi spread between organisms?
A
They produce millions of tiny spores that can spread Widely through crop plants
Can cause hardship and starvation
17
Q
How do viruses take over? 6 steps
A
- Virus attaches to host cell
- It inserts viral nucleic acid (Genetic material)
- The viral nucleic acid replicates
- The synthesis of the viral protein happens
- Then the assembly of the virus particles
- Lysis of the host cell, allowing the new viruses to spread to infect other cells
18
Q
How do protoctista take over a cell?
A
They digest and use the cells contents to reproduce
19
Q
What can bacteria produce and what does this do?
A
Toxins (poison/damage host cells) -breakdown cell membranes -Damage/inactivates enzymes -interfere with host so genetic material Toxins or a byproduct of the normal functioning of the bacteria
20
Q
How do plant diseases threaten people?
A
When crops fail…
- people can starve
- economies can struggle
- ecosystems are threatened as well
21
Q
What is ring rot?
A
Bacterial disease
(potatoes tomatoes aubergines)
Damages leaves, tubers, fruit and can destroy up to 80% of the crop
No cure
22
Q
What is tobacco mosaic virus?
A
Infects tobacco plants and around 150 other species
Damages leaves, flowers, fruit (Stunts growth, reducing yield)
No cure
There are resistant crop strains
23
Q
What is potato blight?
A
Fungus-like protoctista
Penetrates host cells, destroys leaves/tubers/fruits
No cure
There are resistant strains
(Careful management, chemical treatments can reduce infection risk)
24
Q
What is black Sigatoka?
A
Fungus
Attacks and destroys leaves
Fungicide treatments can control the spread
No Cure
25
What is tuberculosis?
Bacterial disease
Destroys lung tissue and suppresses the immune system (body is less able to fight off other diseases)
Curable with antibiotics
Preventable with a vaccination and improving living standards
26
What is bacterial meningitis?
Starts at brain and can spread to the rest of the body causing septicaemia
Antibiotics can cure it if delivered early
Vaccines can protect against some forms of bacterial meningitis
27
What is HIV/AIDS?
AIDS is caused by HIV, targets T-helper cells in the immune system so it’s gradually destroys it
People with HIV are more likely to get other infections (TB) and some types of cancer
It has the enzyme reverse transcriptase that transcribes RNA to single strand of DNA to produce a single strand of DNA in host cell.
Passed by bodily fluids
Anti retroviral drugs slow the progress of the disease
28
What is influenza?
Virus
Kills the ciliated epithelium cells in the gas exchange system (airway open to secondary infection)
Most deaths off from the secondary bacterial infection (pneumonia)
Having flu one year leaves you with some immunity for the next but it mutates regularly
29
What is malaria?
```
Protoctista
Has two hosts: Mosquitoes and people
Invades red blood cells, liver, brain making people weak and vulnerable to other infections
No vaccine and limited cures
Control the vector (prevent mosquitoes)
```
30
What is Ring worm?
Fungus
Causes grey white crusty infectious circular area of skin (itchy)
Antifungal cream can cure it
31
What is athletes foot?
Fungal disease
Grows on and Digests warm moist skin between toes
Crackling and scaling (itchy)
Antifungal cream can cure it
32
What are five different ways of direct Transmission?
- Kissing or contact with bodily fluids
- skin to skin contact
- microorganisms from faeces transmitted on hands
- Inoculation
- ingestion
33
How does transmission through inoculation happen?
-Break in the skin
– animal bites
– puncture wound or through sharing needles
34
How does transmission through ingestion happen?
- Consuming contaminated food or drink
| - transferring pathogens from hand to mouth
35
What are three ways of indirect transmission?
- Formites
- droplet infection (inhalation)
- vectors
36
What are formites and how do they transmit diseases?
-Inanimate objects that can transfer pathogens
37
How does droplet infection transmit diseases?
Small droplets of saliva and mucus are expelled they can contain pathogens
Healthy individual may breathe them in and become infected
38
How do vectors transmit diseases?
From one house to another
Are often animals (e.g. mosquitoes)
Water can also act as a vector (e.g. diarrhoeal diseases)
People can be vectors for animal diseases (foot and mouth disease)
39
What is environmental factors can cause the transmission of communicable disease in animals? Mention 7
- Overcrowded living/working conditions
- poor nutrition
- compromised immune system/immunosuppressant drugs after transplant
- poor disposal of waste
- climate change (new vectors and new diseases), (high temperatures promote spread of malaria)
- culture and infrastructure (traditional medical practices)
- Socio- economic factors (lack of trained health workers, insufficient public warning during outbreak)
40
How does direct transmission happen between plants?
Healthy plant with any part of the disease plant
| e.g. ring rot, tobacco mosaic virus, tomato and potato blight, black sigatoka
41
What are two ways of indirect transmission in plants?
- Soil contamination
| - vectors
42
How does soil contamination cause indirect transmission of communicable diseases?
Infected plants leave pathogens or reproductive spores in the soil that can infect the next crop
43
What are the four types of vectors and how do they cause indirect transmission of communicable diseases in plants?
- wind: spores may be carried
- Water: spores swim in surface film of water on leaves
- animals: carry Pathogens and spores from one plant to another as they feed
- humans: pathogens and spores transmitted by hand, clothing,formites
44
What environmental factors affect the transmission of communicable diseases in plants? Name 5
- Planting variety of crops susceptible to disease
- overcrowding increases spread
- poor mineral nutrition reduce resistance
- damp and warm conditions increase survival
- climate change (allow animal vectors to spread) (increased rainfall and went to promote spread)
45
How do plants respond to an attack (vaguely)?
Chemical is produced when the cell wall is attacked
Release of signalling molecules
Triggers cellular responses (defensive chemicals)
These chemicals send alarm signals to unaffected cells to trigger the defences and physically strengthens the cell wall
46
What polysaccharide is produced when a plant recognises an attack?
Callose
47
What is the role of callose in plant defence?
- It is deposited between cell walls and cell membrane next to infected cells, they act as barriers preventing the pathogens from entering
- large amounts continue to be deposited after initial infection, lignin is added making the mechanical barrier thicker and stronger
48
Where is callose deposited and what does this do?
- Blocks sieve plates in flooring: sealing infected part, preventing spread
- Deposited in plasma does matter between infected cells and neighbours sealing them off from healthy cells to prevent spread
49
What is chemical defences can be used to prevent the spread of communicable diseases in plant?
- Insect repellent
- insecticides
- anti bacterial compounds (antibiotics) phenols
- Antifungal compounds (interfere with fungal cell membranes (chitinases -breaks down chitin in fungal wall)
- Anti-oomycetes (glucanases-Breakdown glucans (polymers found in cell walls of oomycetes)
- General toxins (made by plants)
50
How does skin keep pathogens out?
- Covers body preventing entry
- skin flora of healthy microorganisms: outcompete pathogens for space on surface
- sebum oily substance that inhibits the growth of pathogen
51
What adaptation in the airways keeps pathogens out?
Mucous membranes that secrete mucus (traps microorganisms, contains lysozymes)
Mucus has phagocytes that remove remaining pathogens
52
What do lysozymes do and where else can they be found?
Destroy bacterial and fungal cell walls
| Tears and urine
53
What are expulsive reflexes and how do they keep pathogens out?
Coughs/sneezes eject pathogen leading mucus
| Vomiting/diarrhoea expel contents of gut along with infective pathogens
54
How does blood clot?
Platelets come into contact with collagen and skin/wall of the damaged blood vessel and they secrete several substances
55
What substances do platelets secrete to help with blood clot?
Thromboplastin: enzyme that triggers a cascade of reactions resulting in the formation of blood clot
Serotonin: make smooth-muscle in the walls of blood vessels contract (reducing supply of blood to the area)
56
What happens after the clutch dries out and formed a tough scab?
Epidermal cells start to grow under the scab sealing the wound permanently,
Damaged blood vessels regrow
Collagen fibres are deposited to give new tissue strength
Once the new epidermis reaches normal thickness, scab falls off and the wound is healed
57
How is inflammation characterised?
Pain
Heat
Redness
Swelling
58
Describe the inflammatory response?
Mast cells are activated in damaged tissue, they release chemicals: histamines, cytokines
Histamines: make blood vessels dilate (localised heat and redness) raised temperature prevents pathogens reproducing
They also make blood vessels more leaky so blood plasma is forced out this tissue fluid causes swelling (oedema) and pain
Cytokines: attracts white blood cells that carry out phagocytosis
59
What are non-specific defences give two examples (animals)?
Fever
| Phagocytosis
60
How does fever get rid of pathogens?
Cytokine stimulates hypothalamus to reset thermostat (temperature increases)
- Pathogens reproduce best at or below 37°C, high temps inhibit reproduction
- specific immune system works faster at higher temperatures
61
What are Phagocytes? and what are the two main types?
Specialised white cells that engulf and destroy pathogens
| Neutrophils, macrophages
62
Describe the five stages of phagocytosis
1. Pathogen is produce chemicals that attracts phagocytes
2. Phagocytes recognises nonhuman proteins on pathogen (antigen) the response is not specific it’s simply to a cell or an organism that is non-self
3. Phagocyte engulfs the pathogen and encloses it in a vacuole: phagosome
4. phagosome combines with lysosome: phagolysosome
5. Enzymes from the lysosome digest and destroy the pathogen
63
Why do macrophages take longer to destroy bacteria?
It’s combines antigens from the pathogen surface membrane with special glycoproteins in the cytoplasm called major histocompatibility complex (MHC)
MHC complex moves pathogen antigens to macrophages surface membrane: antigen-presenting cell
64
What can the antigen-presenting cell do?
Stimulate other cells involved in the specific immune system response
65
What are the three functions of cytokines?
Act as cell signalling molecules
Increased body temperature
Stimulate the specific immune system
66
What are opsonins?
Chemicals that bind to pathogens and “Tag “them so they can be more easily recognised by phagocytes
67
What happens during inflammation?
Mast cells are activated
68
What two chemicals do mast cells release? What do each of these chemicals do?
Histamines:
-dilates blood vessels (local heat and redness: slows pathogen reproduction)
-more leaky blood vessels (Swelling and pain:more tissue fluid so more neutrophils leave due to lobed nucleus)
Cytokines: cell signalling, attract phagocytes leading to phagocytosis
69
What is the difference between a neutrophil and a macrophage?
N: lobed nucleus, can leave the blood stream
M: round nucleus, can’t leave blood stream, has major histocompatibility complex
70
What is MHC responsible for?
It is the protein that turns the macrophage into an antigen presenting cell
71
What are the steps of a macrophage becoming an antigen presenting cell?
- macrophage engulfs pathogen
- phagosome is formed
- Phagosome fuses with lysosome making a phagolysosome, Lysosome digests the pathogen except for the antigens
- antigen and MHC combine, placed on the surface making APC
72
What is the difference between T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes?
T: made in bone marrow, mature in thalamus gland
B: made and matured in bone marrow (can become APC)
73
How is the T-helper cell activated?
CD4 Receptor recognises the antigen MHC complex
74
What does the T-helper cell do?
- Releases interleukins that trigger mitosis and specialisation of cells
- signals B cells to work
75
After mitosis of T-helper cells what can be produced?
- T memory cells
- T killer cells
- T regulatory cells
76
What do you T killer cells do?
Release perforin or H202 (Hydrogen peroxide)
| They kill cells
77
What T regulatory cells do?
Suppresses immune system by killing all white blood cells except for T memory and B memory.
To prevent autoimmunity
78
Describe the humoural response
1. Clonal selection: choosing the right B-cell (B-effector cells make different antibodies) that is complimentary to the pathogen
2. Clonal expansion where the B antigen-presenting cells divide by mitosis to make B memory cells or B plasma cells
79
What do you B plasma cells do?
They produce many antibodies
80
What are the four things that immunoglobin can become?
- They can directly attack
- agglutinins
- opsonins
- antitoxins
81
What do agglutinins do?
They glue in different pathogen is making a big batch
| Easier to catch
82
What do antitoxins do?
Neutralise toxins released by pathogens
83
What do you T memory and B memory cells do
Immunological memory
| Used in the secondary response so that if encountering the same pathogen is it can go straight to specific response
84
What happens during inflammation?
Mast cells are activated
85
What two chemicals do mast cells release? What do each of these chemicals do?
Histamines:
-dilates blood vessels (local heat and redness: slows pathogen reproduction)
-more leaky blood vessels (Swelling and pain:more tissue fluid so more neutrophils leave due to lobed nucleus)
Cytokines: cell signalling, attract phagocytes leading to phagocytosis
86
What is the difference between a neutrophil and a macrophage?
N: lobed nucleus, can leave the blood stream
M: round nucleus, can’t leave blood stream, has major histocompatibility complex
87
What is MHC responsible for?
It is the protein that turns the macrophage into an antigen presenting cell
88
What are the steps of a macrophage becoming an antigen presenting cell?
- macrophage engulfs pathogen
- phagosome is formed
- Phagosome fuses with lysosome making a phagolysosome, Lysosome digests the pathogen except for the antigens
- antigen and MHC combine, placed on the surface making APC
89
What is the difference between T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes?
T: made in bone marrow, mature in thalamus gland
B: made and matured in bone marrow (can become APC)
90
How is the T-helper cell activated?
CD4 Receptor recognises the antigen MHC complex
91
What does the T-helper cell do?
- Releases interleukins that trigger mitosis and specialisation of cells
- signals B cells to work
92
After mitosis of T-helper cells what can be produced?
- T memory cells
- T killer cells
- T regulatory cells
93
What do you T killer cells do?
Release perforin or H202 (Hydrogen peroxide)
| They kill cells
94
What T regulatory cells do?
Suppresses immune system by killing all white blood cells except for T memory and B memory.
To prevent autoimmunity
95
Describe the humoural response
1. Clonal selection: choosing the right B-cell (B-effector cells make different antibodies) that is complimentary to the pathogen
2. Clonal expansion where the B antigen-presenting cells divide by mitosis to make B memory cells or B plasma cells
96
What do you B plasma cells do?
They produce many antibodies
97
What are the four things that immunoglobin can become?
- They can directly attack
- agglutinins
- opsonins
- antitoxins
98
What do agglutinins do?
They glue in different pathogen is making a big batch
| Easier to catch
99
What do antitoxins do?
Neutralise toxins released by pathogens
100
What do you T memory and B memory cells do
Immunological memory
| Used in the secondary response so that if encountering the same pathogen is it can go straight to specific response
101
What happens during inflammation?
Mast cells are activated
102
What two chemicals do mast cells release? What do each of these chemicals do?
Histamines:
-dilates blood vessels (local heat and redness: slows pathogen reproduction)
-more leaky blood vessels (Swelling and pain:more tissue fluid so more neutrophils leave due to lobed nucleus)
Cytokines: cell signalling, attract phagocytes leading to phagocytosis
103
What is the difference between a neutrophil and a macrophage?
N: lobed nucleus, can leave the blood stream
M: round nucleus, can’t leave blood stream, has major histocompatibility complex
104
What is MHC responsible for?
It is the protein that turns the macrophage into an antigen presenting cell
105
What are the steps of a macrophage becoming an antigen presenting cell?
- macrophage engulfs pathogen
- phagosome is formed
- Phagosome fuses with lysosome making a phagolysosome, Lysosome digests the pathogen except for the antigens
- antigen and MHC combine, placed on the surface making APC
106
What is the difference between T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes?
T: made in bone marrow, mature in thalamus gland
B: made and matured in bone marrow (can become APC)
107
How is the T-helper cell activated?
CD4 Receptor recognises the antigen MHC complex
108
What does the T-helper cell do?
- Releases interleukins that trigger mitosis and specialisation of cells
- signals B cells to work
109
After mitosis of T-helper cells what can be produced?
- T memory cells
- T killer cells
- T regulatory cells
110
What do you T killer cells do?
Release perforin or H202 (Hydrogen peroxide)
| They kill cells
111
What T regulatory cells do?
Suppresses immune system by killing all white blood cells except for T memory and B memory.
To prevent autoimmunity
112
Describe the humoural response
1. Clonal selection: choosing the right B-cell (B-effector cells make different antibodies) that is complimentary to the pathogen
2. Clonal expansion where the B antigen-presenting cells divide by mitosis to make B memory cells or B plasma cells
113
What do you B plasma cells do?
They produce many antibodies
114
What are the four things that immunoglobin can become?
- They can directly attack
- agglutinins
- opsonins
- antitoxins
115
What do agglutinins do?
They glue in different pathogen is making a big batch
| Easier to catch
116
What do antitoxins do?
Neutralise toxins released by pathogens
117
What do you T memory and B memory cells do
Immunological memory
| Used in the secondary response so that if encountering the same pathogen is it can go straight to specific response
118
What happens during inflammation?
Mast cells are activated
119
What two chemicals do mast cells release? What do each of these chemicals do?
Histamines:
-dilates blood vessels (local heat and redness: slows pathogen reproduction)
-more leaky blood vessels (Swelling and pain:more tissue fluid so more neutrophils leave due to lobed nucleus)
Cytokines: cell signalling, attract phagocytes leading to phagocytosis
120
What is the difference between a neutrophil and a macrophage?
N: lobed nucleus, can leave the blood stream
M: round nucleus, can’t leave blood stream, has major histocompatibility complex
121
What is MHC responsible for?
It is the protein that turns the macrophage into an antigen presenting cell
122
What are the steps of a macrophage becoming an antigen presenting cell?
- macrophage engulfs pathogen
- phagosome is formed
- Phagosome fuses with lysosome making a phagolysosome, Lysosome digests the pathogen except for the antigens
- antigen and MHC combine, placed on the surface making APC
123
What is the difference between T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes?
T: made in bone marrow, mature in thalamus gland
B: made and matured in bone marrow (can become APC)
124
How is the T-helper cell activated?
CD4 Receptor recognises the antigen MHC complex
125
What does the T-helper cell do?
- Releases interleukins that trigger mitosis and specialisation of cells
- signals B cells to work
126
After mitosis of T-helper cells what can be produced?
- T memory cells
- T killer cells
- T regulatory cells
127
What do you T killer cells do?
Release perforin or H202 (Hydrogen peroxide)
| They kill cells
128
What T regulatory cells do?
Suppresses immune system by killing all white blood cells except for T memory and B memory.
To prevent autoimmunity
129
Describe the humoural response
1. Clonal selection: choosing the right B-cell (B-effector cells make different antibodies) that is complimentary to the pathogen
2. Clonal expansion where the B antigen-presenting cells divide by mitosis to make B memory cells or B plasma cells
130
What do you B plasma cells do?
They produce many antibodies
131
What are the four things that immunoglobin can become?
- They can directly attack
- agglutinins
- opsonins
- antitoxins
132
What do agglutinins do?
They glue in different pathogen is making a big batch
| Easier to catch
133
What do antitoxins do?
Neutralise toxins released by pathogens
134
What do you T memory and B memory cells do
Immunological memory
| Used in the secondary response so that if encountering the same pathogen is it can go straight to specific response
135
What happens during inflammation?
Mast cells are activated
136
What two chemicals do mast cells release? What do each of these chemicals do?
Histamines:
-dilates blood vessels (local heat and redness: slows pathogen reproduction)
-more leaky blood vessels (Swelling and pain:more tissue fluid so more neutrophils leave due to lobed nucleus)
Cytokines: cell signalling, attract phagocytes leading to phagocytosis
137
What is the difference between a neutrophil and a macrophage?
N: lobed nucleus, can leave the blood stream
M: round nucleus, can’t leave blood stream, has major histocompatibility complex
138
What is MHC responsible for?
It is the protein that turns the macrophage into an antigen presenting cell
139
What are the steps of a macrophage becoming an antigen presenting cell?
- macrophage engulfs pathogen
- phagosome is formed
- Phagosome fuses with lysosome making a phagolysosome, Lysosome digests the pathogen except for the antigens
- antigen and MHC combine, placed on the surface making APC
140
What is the difference between T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes?
T: made in bone marrow, mature in thalamus gland
B: made and matured in bone marrow (can become APC)
141
How is the T-helper cell activated?
CD4 Receptor recognises the antigen MHC complex
142
What does the T-helper cell do?
- Releases interleukins that trigger mitosis and specialisation of cells
- signals B cells to work
143
After mitosis of T-helper cells what can be produced?
- T memory cells
- T killer cells
- T regulatory cells
144
What do you T killer cells do?
Release perforin or H202 (Hydrogen peroxide)
| They kill cells
145
What T regulatory cells do?
Suppresses immune system by killing all white blood cells except for T memory and B memory.
To prevent autoimmunity
146
Describe the humoural response
1. Clonal selection: choosing the right B-cell (B-effector cells make different antibodies) that is complimentary to the pathogen
2. Clonal expansion where the B antigen-presenting cells divide by mitosis to make B memory cells or B plasma cells
147
What do you B plasma cells do?
They produce many antibodies
148
What are the four things that immunoglobin can become?
- They can directly attack
- agglutinins
- opsonins
- antitoxins
149
What do agglutinins do?
They glue in different pathogen is making a big batch
| Easier to catch
150
What do antitoxins do?
Neutralise toxins released by pathogens
151
What do you T memory and B memory cells do
Immunological memory
| Used in the secondary response so that if encountering the same pathogen is it can go straight to specific response
152
What happens during inflammation?
Mast cells are activated
153
What two chemicals do mast cells release? What do each of these chemicals do?
Histamines:
-dilates blood vessels (local heat and redness: slows pathogen reproduction)
-more leaky blood vessels (Swelling and pain:more tissue fluid so more neutrophils leave due to lobed nucleus)
Cytokines: cell signalling, attract phagocytes leading to phagocytosis
154
What is the difference between a neutrophil and a macrophage?
N: lobed nucleus, can leave the blood stream
M: round nucleus, can’t leave blood stream, has major histocompatibility complex
155
What is MHC responsible for?
It is the protein that turns the macrophage into an antigen presenting cell
156
What are the steps of a macrophage becoming an antigen presenting cell?
- macrophage engulfs pathogen
- phagosome is formed
- Phagosome fuses with lysosome making a phagolysosome, Lysosome digests the pathogen except for the antigens
- antigen and MHC combine, placed on the surface making APC
157
What is the difference between T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes?
T: made in bone marrow, mature in thalamus gland
B: made and matured in bone marrow (can become APC)
158
How is the T-helper cell activated?
CD4 Receptor recognises the antigen MHC complex
159
What does the T-helper cell do?
- Releases interleukins that trigger mitosis and specialisation of cells
- signals B cells to work
160
After mitosis of T-helper cells what can be produced?
- T memory cells
- T killer cells
- T regulatory cells
161
What do you T killer cells do?
Release perforin or H202 (Hydrogen peroxide)
| They kill cells
162
What T regulatory cells do?
Suppresses immune system by killing all white blood cells except for T memory and B memory.
To prevent autoimmunity
163
Describe the humoural response
1. Clonal selection: choosing the right B-cell (B-effector cells make different antibodies) that is complimentary to the pathogen
2. Clonal expansion where the B antigen-presenting cells divide by mitosis to make B memory cells or B plasma cells
164
What do you B plasma cells do?
They produce many antibodies
165
What are the four things that immunoglobin can become?
- They can directly attack
- agglutinins
- opsonins
- antitoxins
166
What do agglutinins do?
They glue in different pathogen is making a big batch
| Easier to catch
167
What do antitoxins do?
Neutralise toxins released by pathogens
168
What do you T memory and B memory cells do
Immunological memory
| Used in the secondary response so that if encountering the same pathogen is it can go straight to specific response
169
What happens during inflammation?
Mast cells are activated
170
What two chemicals do mast cells release? What do each of these chemicals do?
Histamines:
-dilates blood vessels (local heat and redness: slows pathogen reproduction)
-more leaky blood vessels (Swelling and pain:more tissue fluid so more neutrophils leave due to lobed nucleus)
Cytokines: cell signalling, attract phagocytes leading to phagocytosis
171
What is the difference between a neutrophil and a macrophage?
N: lobed nucleus, can leave the blood stream
M: round nucleus, can’t leave blood stream, has major histocompatibility complex
172
What is MHC responsible for?
It is the protein that turns the macrophage into an antigen presenting cell
173
What are the steps of a macrophage becoming an antigen presenting cell?
- macrophage engulfs pathogen
- phagosome is formed
- Phagosome fuses with lysosome making a phagolysosome, Lysosome digests the pathogen except for the antigens
- antigen and MHC combine, placed on the surface making APC
174
What is the difference between T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes?
T: made in bone marrow, mature in thalamus gland
B: made and matured in bone marrow (can become APC)
175
How is the T-helper cell activated?
CD4 Receptor recognises the antigen MHC complex
176
What does the T-helper cell do?
- Releases interleukins that trigger mitosis and specialisation of cells
- signals B cells to work
177
After mitosis of T-helper cells what can be produced?
- T memory cells
- T killer cells
- T regulatory cells
178
What do you T killer cells do?
Release perforin or H202 (Hydrogen peroxide)
| They kill cells
179
What T regulatory cells do?
Suppresses immune system by killing all white blood cells except for T memory and B memory.
To prevent autoimmunity
180
Describe the humoural response
1. Clonal selection: choosing the right B-cell (B-effector cells make different antibodies) that is complimentary to the pathogen
2. Clonal expansion where the B antigen-presenting cells divide by mitosis to make B memory cells or B plasma cells
181
What do you B plasma cells do?
They produce many antibodies
182
What are the four things that immunoglobin can become?
- They can directly attack
- agglutinins
- opsonins
- antitoxins
183
What do agglutinins do?
They glue in different pathogen is making a big batch
| Easier to catch
184
What do antitoxins do?
Neutralise toxins released by pathogens
185
What do you T memory and B memory cells do
Immunological memory
| Used in the secondary response so that if encountering the same pathogen is it can go straight to specific response
186
What happens during inflammation?
Mast cells are activated
187
What two chemicals do mast cells release? What do each of these chemicals do?
Histamines:
-dilates blood vessels (local heat and redness: slows pathogen reproduction)
-more leaky blood vessels (Swelling and pain:more tissue fluid so more neutrophils leave due to lobed nucleus)
Cytokines: cell signalling, attract phagocytes leading to phagocytosis
188
What is the difference between a neutrophil and a macrophage?
N: lobed nucleus, can leave the blood stream
M: round nucleus, can’t leave blood stream, has major histocompatibility complex
189
What is MHC responsible for?
It is the protein that turns the macrophage into an antigen presenting cell
190
What are the steps of a macrophage becoming an antigen presenting cell?
- macrophage engulfs pathogen
- phagosome is formed
- Phagosome fuses with lysosome making a phagolysosome, Lysosome digests the pathogen except for the antigens
- antigen and MHC combine, placed on the surface making APC
191
What is the difference between T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes?
T: made in bone marrow, mature in thalamus gland
B: made and matured in bone marrow (can become APC)
192
How is the T-helper cell activated?
CD4 Receptor recognises the antigen MHC complex
193
What does the T-helper cell do?
- Releases interleukins that trigger mitosis and specialisation of cells
- signals B cells to work
194
After mitosis of T-helper cells what can be produced?
- T memory cells
- T killer cells
- T regulatory cells
195
What do you T killer cells do?
Release perforin or H202 (Hydrogen peroxide)
| They kill cells
196
What T regulatory cells do?
Suppresses immune system by killing all white blood cells except for T memory and B memory.
To prevent autoimmunity
197
Describe the humoural response
1. Clonal selection: choosing the right B-cell (B-effector cells make different antibodies) that is complimentary to the pathogen
2. Clonal expansion where the B antigen-presenting cells divide by mitosis to make B memory cells or B plasma cells
198
What do you B plasma cells do?
They produce many antibodies
199
What are the four things that immunoglobin can become?
- They can directly attack
- agglutinins
- opsonins
- antitoxins
200
What do agglutinins do?
They glue in different pathogen is making a big batch
| Easier to catch
201
What do antitoxins do?
Neutralise toxins released by pathogens
202
What do you T memory and B memory cells do
Immunological memory
| Used in the secondary response so that if encountering the same pathogen is it can go straight to specific response
203
What happens during inflammation?
Mast cells are activated
204
What two chemicals do mast cells release? What do each of these chemicals do?
Histamines:
-dilates blood vessels (local heat and redness: slows pathogen reproduction)
-more leaky blood vessels (Swelling and pain:more tissue fluid so more neutrophils leave due to lobed nucleus)
Cytokines: cell signalling, attract phagocytes leading to phagocytosis
205
What is the difference between a neutrophil and a macrophage?
N: lobed nucleus, can leave the blood stream
M: round nucleus, can’t leave blood stream, has major histocompatibility complex
206
What is MHC responsible for?
It is the protein that turns the macrophage into an antigen presenting cell
207
What are the steps of a macrophage becoming an antigen presenting cell?
- macrophage engulfs pathogen
- phagosome is formed
- Phagosome fuses with lysosome making a phagolysosome, Lysosome digests the pathogen except for the antigens
- antigen and MHC combine, placed on the surface making APC
208
What is the difference between T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes?
T: made in bone marrow, mature in thalamus gland
B: made and matured in bone marrow (can become APC)
209
How is the T-helper cell activated?
CD4 Receptor recognises the antigen MHC complex
210
What does the T-helper cell do?
- Releases interleukins that trigger mitosis and specialisation of cells
- signals B cells to work
211
After mitosis of T-helper cells what can be produced?
- T memory cells
- T killer cells
- T regulatory cells
212
What do you T killer cells do?
Release perforin or H202 (Hydrogen peroxide)
| They kill cells
213
What T regulatory cells do?
Suppresses immune system by killing all white blood cells except for T memory and B memory.
To prevent autoimmunity
214
Describe the humoural response
1. Clonal selection: choosing the right B-cell (B-effector cells make different antibodies) that is complimentary to the pathogen
2. Clonal expansion where the B antigen-presenting cells divide by mitosis to make B memory cells or B plasma cells
215
What do you B plasma cells do?
They produce many antibodies
216
What are the four things that immunoglobin can become?
- They can directly attack
- agglutinins
- opsonins
- antitoxins
217
What do agglutinins do?
They glue in different pathogen is making a big batch
| Easier to catch
218
What do antitoxins do?
Neutralise toxins released by pathogens
219
What do you T memory and B memory cells do
Immunological memory
| Used in the secondary response so that if encountering the same pathogen is it can go straight to specific response
220
What happens during inflammation?
Mast cells are activated
221
What two chemicals do mast cells release? What do each of these chemicals do?
Histamines:
-dilates blood vessels (local heat and redness: slows pathogen reproduction)
-more leaky blood vessels (Swelling and pain:more tissue fluid so more neutrophils leave due to lobed nucleus)
Cytokines: cell signalling, attract phagocytes leading to phagocytosis
222
What is the difference between a neutrophil and a macrophage?
N: lobed nucleus, can leave the blood stream
M: round nucleus, can’t leave blood stream, has major histocompatibility complex
223
What is MHC responsible for?
It is the protein that turns the macrophage into an antigen presenting cell
224
What are the steps of a macrophage becoming an antigen presenting cell?
- macrophage engulfs pathogen
- phagosome is formed
- Phagosome fuses with lysosome making a phagolysosome, Lysosome digests the pathogen except for the antigens
- antigen and MHC combine, placed on the surface making APC
225
What is the difference between T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes?
T: made in bone marrow, mature in thalamus gland
B: made and matured in bone marrow (can become APC)
226
How is the T-helper cell activated?
CD4 Receptor recognises the antigen MHC complex
227
What does the T-helper cell do?
- Releases interleukins that trigger mitosis and specialisation of cells
- signals B cells to work
228
After mitosis of T-helper cells what can be produced?
- T memory cells
- T killer cells
- T regulatory cells
229
What do you T killer cells do?
Release perforin or H202 (Hydrogen peroxide)
| They kill cells
230
What T regulatory cells do?
Suppresses immune system by killing all white blood cells except for T memory and B memory.
To prevent autoimmunity
231
Describe the humoural response
1. Clonal selection: choosing the right B-cell (B-effector cells make different antibodies) that is complimentary to the pathogen
2. Clonal expansion where the B antigen-presenting cells divide by mitosis to make B memory cells or B plasma cells
232
What do you B plasma cells do?
They produce many antibodies
233
What are the four things that immunoglobin can become?
- They can directly attack
- agglutinins
- opsonins
- antitoxins
234
What do agglutinins do?
They glue in different pathogen is making a big batch
| Easier to catch
235
What do antitoxins do?
Neutralise toxins released by pathogens
236
What do you T memory and B memory cells do
Immunological memory
| Used in the secondary response so that if encountering the same pathogen is it can go straight to specific response
237
What happens during inflammation?
Mast cells are activated
238
What two chemicals do mast cells release? What do each of these chemicals do?
Histamines:
-dilates blood vessels (local heat and redness: slows pathogen reproduction)
-more leaky blood vessels (Swelling and pain:more tissue fluid so more neutrophils leave due to lobed nucleus)
Cytokines: cell signalling, attract phagocytes leading to phagocytosis
239
What is the difference between a neutrophil and a macrophage?
N: lobed nucleus, can leave the blood stream
M: round nucleus, can’t leave blood stream, has major histocompatibility complex
240
What is MHC responsible for?
It is the protein that turns the macrophage into an antigen presenting cell
241
What are the steps of a macrophage becoming an antigen presenting cell?
- macrophage engulfs pathogen
- phagosome is formed
- Phagosome fuses with lysosome making a phagolysosome, Lysosome digests the pathogen except for the antigens
- antigen and MHC combine, placed on the surface making APC
242
What is the difference between T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes?
T: made in bone marrow, mature in thalamus gland
B: made and matured in bone marrow (can become APC)
243
How is the T-helper cell activated?
CD4 Receptor recognises the antigen MHC complex
244
What does the T-helper cell do?
- Releases interleukins that trigger mitosis and specialisation of cells
- signals B cells to work
245
After mitosis of T-helper cells what can be produced?
- T memory cells
- T killer cells
- T regulatory cells
246
What do you T killer cells do?
Release perforin or H202 (Hydrogen peroxide)
| They kill cells
247
What T regulatory cells do?
Suppresses immune system by killing all white blood cells except for T memory and B memory.
To prevent autoimmunity
248
Describe the humoural response
1. Clonal selection: choosing the right B-cell (B-effector cells make different antibodies) that is complimentary to the pathogen
2. Clonal expansion where the B antigen-presenting cells divide by mitosis to make B memory cells or B plasma cells
249
What do you B plasma cells do?
They produce many antibodies
250
What are the four things that immunoglobin can become?
- They can directly attack
- agglutinins
- opsonins
- antitoxins
251
What do agglutinins do?
They glue in different pathogen is making a big batch
| Easier to catch
252
What do antitoxins do?
Neutralise toxins released by pathogens
253
What do you T memory and B memory cells do
Immunological memory
| Used in the secondary response so that if encountering the same pathogen is it can go straight to specific response
254
What happens during inflammation?
Mast cells are activated
255
What two chemicals do mast cells release? What do each of these chemicals do?
Histamines:
-dilates blood vessels (local heat and redness: slows pathogen reproduction)
-more leaky blood vessels (Swelling and pain:more tissue fluid so more neutrophils leave due to lobed nucleus)
Cytokines: cell signalling, attract phagocytes leading to phagocytosis
256
What is the difference between a neutrophil and a macrophage?
N: lobed nucleus, can leave the blood stream
M: round nucleus, can’t leave blood stream, has major histocompatibility complex
257
What is MHC responsible for?
It is the protein that turns the macrophage into an antigen presenting cell
258
What are the steps of a macrophage becoming an antigen presenting cell?
- macrophage engulfs pathogen
- phagosome is formed
- Phagosome fuses with lysosome making a phagolysosome, Lysosome digests the pathogen except for the antigens
- antigen and MHC combine, placed on the surface making APC
259
What is the difference between T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes?
T: made in bone marrow, mature in thalamus gland
B: made and matured in bone marrow (can become APC)
260
How is the T-helper cell activated?
CD4 Receptor recognises the antigen MHC complex
261
What does the T-helper cell do?
- Releases interleukins that trigger mitosis and specialisation of cells
- signals B cells to work
262
After mitosis of T-helper cells what can be produced?
- T memory cells
- T killer cells
- T regulatory cells
263
What do you T killer cells do?
Release perforin or H202 (Hydrogen peroxide)
| They kill cells
264
What T regulatory cells do?
Suppresses immune system by killing all white blood cells except for T memory and B memory.
To prevent autoimmunity
265
Describe the humoural response
1. Clonal selection: choosing the right B-cell (B-effector cells make different antibodies) that is complimentary to the pathogen
2. Clonal expansion where the B antigen-presenting cells divide by mitosis to make B memory cells or B plasma cells
266
What do you B plasma cells do?
They produce many antibodies
267
What are the four things that immunoglobin can become?
- They can directly attack
- agglutinins
- opsonins
- antitoxins
268
What do agglutinins do?
They glue in different pathogen is making a big batch
| Easier to catch
269
What do antitoxins do?
Neutralise toxins released by pathogens
270
What do you T memory and B memory cells do
Immunological memory
| Used in the secondary response so that if encountering the same pathogen is it can go straight to specific response
271
What happens during inflammation?
Mast cells are activated
272
What two chemicals do mast cells release? What do each of these chemicals do?
Histamines:
-dilates blood vessels (local heat and redness: slows pathogen reproduction)
-more leaky blood vessels (Swelling and pain:more tissue fluid so more neutrophils leave due to lobed nucleus)
Cytokines: cell signalling, attract phagocytes leading to phagocytosis
273
What is the difference between a neutrophil and a macrophage?
N: lobed nucleus, can leave the blood stream
M: round nucleus, can’t leave blood stream, has major histocompatibility complex
274
What is MHC responsible for?
It is the protein that turns the macrophage into an antigen presenting cell
275
What are the steps of a macrophage becoming an antigen presenting cell?
- macrophage engulfs pathogen
- phagosome is formed
- Phagosome fuses with lysosome making a phagolysosome, Lysosome digests the pathogen except for the antigens
- antigen and MHC combine, placed on the surface making APC
276
What is the difference between T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes?
T: made in bone marrow, mature in thalamus gland
B: made and matured in bone marrow (can become APC)
277
How is the T-helper cell activated?
CD4 Receptor recognises the antigen MHC complex
278
What does the T-helper cell do?
- Releases interleukins that trigger mitosis and specialisation of cells
- signals B cells to work
279
After mitosis of T-helper cells what can be produced?
- T memory cells
- T killer cells
- T regulatory cells
280
What do you T killer cells do?
Release perforin or H202 (Hydrogen peroxide)
| They kill cells
281
What T regulatory cells do?
Suppresses immune system by killing all white blood cells except for T memory and B memory.
To prevent autoimmunity
282
Describe the humoural response
1. Clonal selection: choosing the right B-cell (B-effector cells make different antibodies) that is complimentary to the pathogen
2. Clonal expansion where the B antigen-presenting cells divide by mitosis to make B memory cells or B plasma cells
283
What do you B plasma cells do?
They produce many antibodies
284
What are the four things that immunoglobin can become?
- They can directly attack
- agglutinins
- opsonins
- antitoxins
285
What do agglutinins do?
They glue in different pathogen is making a big batch
| Easier to catch
286
What do antitoxins do?
Neutralise toxins released by pathogens
287
What do you T memory and B memory cells do
Immunological memory
| Used in the secondary response so that if encountering the same pathogen is it can go straight to specific response
288
What happens during inflammation?
Mast cells are activated
289
What two chemicals do mast cells release? What do each of these chemicals do?
Histamines:
-dilates blood vessels (local heat and redness: slows pathogen reproduction)
-more leaky blood vessels (Swelling and pain:more tissue fluid so more neutrophils leave due to lobed nucleus)
Cytokines: cell signalling, attract phagocytes leading to phagocytosis
290
What is the difference between a neutrophil and a macrophage?
N: lobed nucleus, can leave the blood stream
M: round nucleus, can’t leave blood stream, has major histocompatibility complex
291
What is MHC responsible for?
It is the protein that turns the macrophage into an antigen presenting cell
292
What are the steps of a macrophage becoming an antigen presenting cell?
- macrophage engulfs pathogen
- phagosome is formed
- Phagosome fuses with lysosome making a phagolysosome, Lysosome digests the pathogen except for the antigens
- antigen and MHC combine, placed on the surface making APC
293
What is the difference between T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes?
T: made in bone marrow, mature in thalamus gland
B: made and matured in bone marrow (can become APC)
294
How is the T-helper cell activated?
CD4 Receptor recognises the antigen MHC complex
295
What does the T-helper cell do?
- Releases interleukins that trigger mitosis and specialisation of cells
- signals B cells to work
296
After mitosis of T-helper cells what can be produced?
- T memory cells
- T killer cells
- T regulatory cells
297
What do you T killer cells do?
Release perforin or H202 (Hydrogen peroxide)
| They kill cells
298
What T regulatory cells do?
Suppresses immune system by killing all white blood cells except for T memory and B memory.
To prevent autoimmunity
299
Describe the humoural response
1. Clonal selection: choosing the right B-cell (B-effector cells make different antibodies) that is complimentary to the pathogen
2. Clonal expansion where the B antigen-presenting cells divide by mitosis to make B memory cells or B plasma cells
300
What do you B plasma cells do?
They produce many antibodies
301
What are the four things that immunoglobin can become?
- They can directly attack
- agglutinins
- opsonins
- antitoxins
302
What do agglutinins do?
They glue in different pathogen is making a big batch
| Easier to catch
303
What do antitoxins do?
Neutralise toxins released by pathogens
304
What do you T memory and B memory cells do
Immunological memory
| Used in the secondary response so that if encountering the same pathogen is it can go straight to specific response
305
What happens during inflammation?
Mast cells are activated
306
What two chemicals do mast cells release? What do each of these chemicals do?
Histamines:
-dilates blood vessels (local heat and redness: slows pathogen reproduction)
-more leaky blood vessels (Swelling and pain:more tissue fluid so more neutrophils leave due to lobed nucleus)
Cytokines: cell signalling, attract phagocytes leading to phagocytosis
307
What is the difference between a neutrophil and a macrophage?
N: lobed nucleus, can leave the blood stream
M: round nucleus, can’t leave blood stream, has major histocompatibility complex
308
What is MHC responsible for?
It is the protein that turns the macrophage into an antigen presenting cell
309
What are the steps of a macrophage becoming an antigen presenting cell?
- macrophage engulfs pathogen
- phagosome is formed
- Phagosome fuses with lysosome making a phagolysosome, Lysosome digests the pathogen except for the antigens
- antigen and MHC combine, placed on the surface making APC
310
What is the difference between T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes?
T: made in bone marrow, mature in thalamus gland
B: made and matured in bone marrow (can become APC)
311
How is the T-helper cell activated?
CD4 Receptor recognises the antigen MHC complex
312
What does the T-helper cell do?
- Releases interleukins that trigger mitosis and specialisation of cells
- signals B cells to work
313
After mitosis of T-helper cells what can be produced?
- T memory cells
- T killer cells
- T regulatory cells
314
What do you T killer cells do?
Release perforin or H202 (Hydrogen peroxide)
| They kill cells
315
What T regulatory cells do?
Suppresses immune system by killing all white blood cells except for T memory and B memory.
To prevent autoimmunity
316
Describe the humoural response
1. Clonal selection: choosing the right B-cell (B-effector cells make different antibodies) that is complimentary to the pathogen
2. Clonal expansion where the B antigen-presenting cells divide by mitosis to make B memory cells or B plasma cells
317
What do you B plasma cells do?
They produce many antibodies
318
What are the four things that immunoglobin can become?
- They can directly attack
- agglutinins
- opsonins
- antitoxins
319
What do agglutinins do?
They glue in different pathogen is making a big batch
| Easier to catch
320
What do antitoxins do?
Neutralise toxins released by pathogens
321
What do you T memory and B memory cells do
Immunological memory
| Used in the secondary response so that if encountering the same pathogen is it can go straight to specific response
322
What happens during inflammation?
Mast cells are activated
323
What two chemicals do mast cells release? What do each of these chemicals do?
Histamines:
-dilates blood vessels (local heat and redness: slows pathogen reproduction)
-more leaky blood vessels (Swelling and pain:more tissue fluid so more neutrophils leave due to lobed nucleus)
Cytokines: cell signalling, attract phagocytes leading to phagocytosis
324
What is the difference between a neutrophil and a macrophage?
N: lobed nucleus, can leave the blood stream
M: round nucleus, can’t leave blood stream, has major histocompatibility complex
325
What is MHC responsible for?
It is the protein that turns the macrophage into an antigen presenting cell
326
What are the steps of a macrophage becoming an antigen presenting cell?
- macrophage engulfs pathogen
- phagosome is formed
- Phagosome fuses with lysosome making a phagolysosome, Lysosome digests the pathogen except for the antigens
- antigen and MHC combine, placed on the surface making APC
327
What is the difference between T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes?
T: made in bone marrow, mature in thalamus gland
B: made and matured in bone marrow (can become APC)
328
How is the T-helper cell activated?
CD4 Receptor recognises the antigen MHC complex
329
What does the T-helper cell do?
- Releases interleukins that trigger mitosis and specialisation of cells
- signals B cells to work
330
After mitosis of T-helper cells what can be produced?
- T memory cells
- T killer cells
- T regulatory cells
331
What do you T killer cells do?
Release perforin or H202 (Hydrogen peroxide)
| They kill cells
332
What T regulatory cells do?
Suppresses immune system by killing all white blood cells except for T memory and B memory.
To prevent autoimmunity
333
Describe the humoural response
1. Clonal selection: choosing the right B-cell (B-effector cells make different antibodies) that is complimentary to the pathogen
2. Clonal expansion where the B antigen-presenting cells divide by mitosis to make B memory cells or B plasma cells
334
What do you B plasma cells do?
They produce many antibodies
335
What are the four things that immunoglobin can become?
- They can directly attack
- agglutinins
- opsonins
- antitoxins
336
What do agglutinins do?
They glue in different pathogen is making a big batch
| Easier to catch
337
What do antitoxins do?
Neutralise toxins released by pathogens
338
What do you T memory and B memory cells do
Immunological memory
| Used in the secondary response so that if encountering the same pathogen is it can go straight to specific response
339
What happens during inflammation?
Mast cells are activated
340
What two chemicals do mast cells release? What do each of these chemicals do?
Histamines:
-dilates blood vessels (local heat and redness: slows pathogen reproduction)
-more leaky blood vessels (Swelling and pain:more tissue fluid so more neutrophils leave due to lobed nucleus)
Cytokines: cell signalling, attract phagocytes leading to phagocytosis
341
What is the difference between a neutrophil and a macrophage?
N: lobed nucleus, can leave the blood stream
M: round nucleus, can’t leave blood stream, has major histocompatibility complex
342
What is MHC responsible for?
It is the protein that turns the macrophage into an antigen presenting cell
343
What are the steps of a macrophage becoming an antigen presenting cell?
- macrophage engulfs pathogen
- phagosome is formed
- Phagosome fuses with lysosome making a phagolysosome, Lysosome digests the pathogen except for the antigens
- antigen and MHC combine, placed on the surface making APC
344
What is the difference between T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes?
T: made in bone marrow, mature in thalamus gland
B: made and matured in bone marrow (can become APC)
345
How is the T-helper cell activated?
CD4 Receptor recognises the antigen MHC complex
346
What does the T-helper cell do?
- Releases interleukins that trigger mitosis and specialisation of cells
- signals B cells to work
347
After mitosis of T-helper cells what can be produced?
- T memory cells
- T killer cells
- T regulatory cells
348
What do you T killer cells do?
Release perforin or H202 (Hydrogen peroxide)
| They kill cells
349
What T regulatory cells do?
Suppresses immune system by killing all white blood cells except for T memory and B memory.
To prevent autoimmunity
350
Describe the humoural response
1. Clonal selection: choosing the right B-cell (B-effector cells make different antibodies) that is complimentary to the pathogen
2. Clonal expansion where the B antigen-presenting cells divide by mitosis to make B memory cells or B plasma cells
351
What do you B plasma cells do?
They produce many antibodies
352
What are the four things that immunoglobin can become?
- They can directly attack
- agglutinins
- opsonins
- antitoxins
353
What do agglutinins do?
They glue in different pathogen is making a big batch
| Easier to catch
354
What do antitoxins do?
Neutralise toxins released by pathogens
355
What do you T memory and B memory cells do
Immunological memory
| Used in the secondary response so that if encountering the same pathogen is it can go straight to specific response
356
What happens during inflammation?
Mast cells are activated
357
What two chemicals do mast cells release? What do each of these chemicals do?
Histamines:
-dilates blood vessels (local heat and redness: slows pathogen reproduction)
-more leaky blood vessels (Swelling and pain:more tissue fluid so more neutrophils leave due to lobed nucleus)
Cytokines: cell signalling, attract phagocytes leading to phagocytosis
358
What is the difference between a neutrophil and a macrophage?
N: lobed nucleus, can leave the blood stream
M: round nucleus, can’t leave blood stream, has major histocompatibility complex
359
What is MHC responsible for?
It is the protein that turns the macrophage into an antigen presenting cell
360
What are the steps of a macrophage becoming an antigen presenting cell?
- macrophage engulfs pathogen
- phagosome is formed
- Phagosome fuses with lysosome making a phagolysosome, Lysosome digests the pathogen except for the antigens
- antigen and MHC combine, placed on the surface making APC
361
What is the difference between T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes?
T: made in bone marrow, mature in thalamus gland
B: made and matured in bone marrow (can become APC)
362
How is the T-helper cell activated?
CD4 Receptor recognises the antigen MHC complex
363
What does the T-helper cell do?
- Releases interleukins that trigger mitosis and specialisation of cells
- signals B cells to work
364
After mitosis of T-helper cells what can be produced?
- T memory cells
- T killer cells
- T regulatory cells
365
What do you T killer cells do?
Release perforin or H202 (Hydrogen peroxide)
| They kill cells
366
What T regulatory cells do?
Suppresses immune system by killing all white blood cells except for T memory and B memory.
To prevent autoimmunity
367
Describe the humoural response
1. Clonal selection: choosing the right B-cell (B-effector cells make different antibodies) that is complimentary to the pathogen
2. Clonal expansion where the B antigen-presenting cells divide by mitosis to make B memory cells or B plasma cells
368
What do you B plasma cells do?
They produce many antibodies
369
What are the four things that immunoglobin can become?
- They can directly attack
- agglutinins
- opsonins
- antitoxins
370
What do agglutinins do?
They glue in different pathogen is making a big batch
| Easier to catch
371
What do antitoxins do?
Neutralise toxins released by pathogens
372
What do you T memory and B memory cells do
Immunological memory
| Used in the secondary response so that if encountering the same pathogen is it can go straight to specific response
373
What happens during inflammation?
Mast cells are activated
374
What two chemicals do mast cells release? What do each of these chemicals do?
Histamines:
-dilates blood vessels (local heat and redness: slows pathogen reproduction)
-more leaky blood vessels (Swelling and pain:more tissue fluid so more neutrophils leave due to lobed nucleus)
Cytokines: cell signalling, attract phagocytes leading to phagocytosis
375
What is the difference between a neutrophil and a macrophage?
N: lobed nucleus, can leave the blood stream
M: round nucleus, can’t leave blood stream, has major histocompatibility complex
376
What is MHC responsible for?
It is the protein that turns the macrophage into an antigen presenting cell
377
What are the steps of a macrophage becoming an antigen presenting cell?
- macrophage engulfs pathogen
- phagosome is formed
- Phagosome fuses with lysosome making a phagolysosome, Lysosome digests the pathogen except for the antigens
- antigen and MHC combine, placed on the surface making APC
378
What is the difference between T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes?
T: made in bone marrow, mature in thalamus gland
B: made and matured in bone marrow (can become APC)
379
How is the T-helper cell activated?
CD4 Receptor recognises the antigen MHC complex
380
What does the T-helper cell do?
- Releases interleukins that trigger mitosis and specialisation of cells
- signals B cells to work
381
After mitosis of T-helper cells what can be produced?
- T memory cells
- T killer cells
- T regulatory cells
382
What do you T killer cells do?
Release perforin or H202 (Hydrogen peroxide)
| They kill cells
383
What T regulatory cells do?
Suppresses immune system by killing all white blood cells except for T memory and B memory.
To prevent autoimmunity
384
Describe the humoural response
1. Clonal selection: choosing the right B-cell (B-effector cells make different antibodies) that is complimentary to the pathogen
2. Clonal expansion where the B antigen-presenting cells divide by mitosis to make B memory cells or B plasma cells
385
What do you B plasma cells do?
They produce many antibodies
386
What are the four things that immunoglobin can become?
- They can directly attack
- agglutinins
- opsonins
- antitoxins
387
What do agglutinins do?
They glue in different pathogen is making a big batch
| Easier to catch
388
What do antitoxins do?
Neutralise toxins released by pathogens
389
What do you T memory and B memory cells do
Immunological memory
| Used in the secondary response so that if encountering the same pathogen is it can go straight to specific response
390
What happens during inflammation?
Mast cells are activated
391
What is an autoimmune disease?
Immune system stops recognising self cells and attacks healthy body tissue
392
What is a treatment for autoimmune diseases?
Immunosuppressant drugs
-prevent immune system working
But deprive the body of natural defences against communicable diseases
393
Give three examples of autoimmune diseases
Type one diabetes
Rheumatoid arthritis
Lupus
394
What is natural active immunity?
When the body acts to produce antibodies or memory cells
395
Where does the newborn baby get his antibodies from?
- Some cross the placenta from the mother
| - first mammilian milk (colostrum) is high in antibodies
396
What is natural passive immunity?
When the body gets his immunity from somewhere else before it starts making his own (in newborn babies)
397
What is artificial passive immunity?
Antibodies from one individual extracted and injected into the bloodstream of another (temporary)
398
What is artificial active immunity?
Using the safe form of an antigen (a vaccine)
399
How can pathogens be made safe to act as vaccines?
- Bacteria/viruses are killed or inactivated
- weakened strains of the live bacteria or virus
- toxin molecules have been altered and detoxified
- isolated antigen is extracted from pathogen
- genetically engineered antigens
400
What is an epidemic?
Communicable disease spreads rapidly to all people at a local or national level
401
What is a pandemic?
Same disease spreads rapidly across a number of countries and continents
402
What is a herd immunity?
Enough people in the population have been vaccinated and it protects those who don’t have immunity
403
What is personalised medicine?
Combination of drugs that work with individual combination of genetics and disease
404
What is pharmacogenomics?
Science of interweaving knowledge of drug actions with personal genetic material
405
What is the MRSA?
Methicillin resistant staphylococcus aureus
- 30% of population have it on skin or nose
- causes boils abscesses fatal septicaemia
- was treated with methicillin but mutation causes resistance resistant strains
406
What is C. difficile?
Clostridium difficile
- guts in 5% of population
- toxins that damage lining of intestines, diarrhoea bleeding and death
- kills off healthy gut bacteria
