4.2.3.1 Data Handling And Analysis Flashcards
What are correlational techniques?
Non-experimental methods used to measure how strong the relationship is between two or more variables.
What is correlation?
A mathematical term that illustrates the strength and direction of the association between two co-variables.
Does correlation imply causation?
It does not imply causation, but will usually lead to further studies to determine if there is a cause and effect relationship.
What are the types of correlation and what do they mean?
Positive correlation- as one variable increases, the other also increases
Negative correlation- as one variable increases, the other variable decreases
Zero correlation- when a correlational study finds no association between variables
What is a correlation coefficient?
A number used to measure the strength and nature of the relationship between two co-variables.
The correlation coefficient number represents the strength of the relationship and can range from +1.0 to -1.0
The closer the number to 1 or -1, they stronger the correlation.
What is the value of a perfect positive and perfect negative correlations?
Perfect positive- 1
Perfect negative- -1
What value can we determine correlation between variables?
+/_ 0.8
What is a scattergram?
A graph that shows the correlation between two sets of data (co-variables) by plotting points to represent each pair of scores.
It indicates the degree and direction of the correlation between co-variables, one of which is indicated on the x and one of which is indicated on the y axis.
What are the strengths of correlational studies?
An ideal place to begin preliminary research investigations, as it provides valuable insight for future research by assessing the strength and direction of a relationship between co-variables. This will give researchers more confidence before committing an experimental study.
Can be used when a laboratory experiment would be unethical, as the variables are not manipulated, simply correlated. Secondary data can be used which removes the concern over informed consent as the information is already in the public domain.
Quick and economical to carry out as there is no need to control;l the environment or manipulate variables.
Weaknesses of correlational studies?
As a result of the lack of experimental manipulation and control, it is impossible to establish a cause and effect relationship, and conclude that the change in one variable caused the change in the other. There could be other factors that influenced the relationship- known as the third variable problem. Therefore correlations may be misused or misinterpreted.
Correlations only identify linear relationships and not curvilinear, so cannot be used to identify relationships in all cases.
What is a correlational hypothesis?
It includes no IV or DV, but instead states the relationship between two operationalised co-variables. They can be directional or non-directional.
What is quantitative data?
Numerical data that can be statistically analysed and converted easily into a graphical format. It can be counted and is usually given in numbers.
Strength of quantitative data
It is easy to analyse statistically, as it produces large amounts of numerical data, which is easy to conduct descriptive statistics or inferential tests of significance. This allows for comparisons and trends to be identified between groups, and mathematical procedures used make results objective, and so more scientific and less open to bias.
Weakness of quantitative data?
The data is not in-depth and is narrow in scope when explaining complex human behaviour. This means numerical findings can often lack meaning and context. Therefore it may not be a true representation of real life and thus lacks validity.
What is qualitative data?
Non-numerical, language based data expressed in words, which allows researchers to develop an insight into the unique nature of human experiences, opinions and feelings.
Strength of qualitative data
The data offers the researcher rich detail of information as participants can develop their responses freely. This provides the investigator with meaningful insights into the human condition. Therefore, the external validity of the findings is enhanced as they are more likely to represent an accurate, real-world view.
Weakness of qualitative data
It is difficult to analyse and difficult to summarise statistically, making it hard to identify patters and comparisons with and between data. Therefore, conclusions are often based on the opinions and judgements of the researcher, which increases subjectivity and increases the chance of researcher bias due to preconceptions.
What is primary data?
Refers to data that has been collected for a specific reason and reported by the original researcher. It is data that the participant reports directly to the researcher, or is witnessed first-hand. It is sometimes referred to as field research.
Strengths of primary data
It is authentic as it is collected with the sole purpose of being a specific part of the investigation, so it is designed to suit the aims of the research. This makes it more useful to draw conclusions from.
The research can also ensure a high level of control is kept, to ensure internal validity in the results.
Weakness of primary data
Designing and carrying out a study can take a long period of time and considerable effort. This makes it costly for it to take place, due to researchers time and expenses of the equipment. Therefore, in comparison, secondary data which already exists can save the researcher time, effort and money.
What is secondary data?
Information that was collected by other researchers for a purpose other than the investigation in which it is currently being used. It is data that already exists, and its significance is already known.
Strength of secondary data
The information already exists in the public domain, so it is much less time consuming and expensive to collect. This means researchers can find the information they desire with very little effort.
Weakness of secondary data
There are some concerns over accuracy, as the information was not gathered to meet the specific aims of this experiment. This means that there may be significant variability in the quality of the data, and may be of little to no value ton the researchers, due to being outdated or incomplete. This challenges the validity of any conclusions made.
What is a meta-analysis?
A process whereby investigators combine findings from multiple studies (secondary data) on a specific subject, to make an overall analysis of trends and patterns arising across research. This can include a qualitative review of previous research, or a statistical, quantitative analysis to test for significance or effect size.
