Expansion

Question 1

Treaty of Tordesillas

Answer 1

Spain and Portugal had conflicting ideas about the destiny of the new territories
Pope Alexander VI mediates between them
May 1493: Spain gets all non xn countries
Portugal gets coast of Africa
Line from North to westernmost point of Azores, all West to Spain, all East to Portugal
–> Treaty of Tordesillas 1494 pushes line west

Question 2

Portugese areas of Expansion

Answer 2

Portugese
Settle West Africa, Congo, Angola, India, Ceylon, Brazil, St Helena, Socotra, Mozambique, Hormuz (Persian gulf), Mayal Archipelago, Macao (Coast of China) in 1555
Trade with Japan established churches

Question 3

Spanish areas of Expansion

Answer 3

Spanish
Mexico, Peru, West Indes, Columbia and Panama
Outposts in California, New Mexico, Chile, River Plate

Question 4

Portugese-Spanish conflict over control of far East

Answer 4

Portugese-Spanish conflict in far East
Magellan proves earth to be round in 1522 = line must be extended to the other side
Spanish claimed it should run by Malaca, the Portugese claimed it should run to the East of the Phillipines.
Portugese take the Moluccas in the Indian Ocean, Spanish take Phillippines (Philip II of Spain)

Question 5

New infrastructure in the Americas

Answer 5

The Americas
University of New Mexico (1544)
First see at San Domingo in 1511, 15 more by 1582

Question 6

Styles of Expansion

Answer 6

Style of expansion
Missionaries followed conquerors and ‘established missionaries in their wake’
Aggressive conquest
De-centralised authority

Question 7

The Aztecs and Cortes

Answer 7

Cortes, conqueror of Mexico
Devout, kept statue of Mary on his person
Gave ultimatum to citizens of Cholula, Mexico: accept the faith or die
outnumbered, fearing attack, he invites leading Cholulans to sacred square of the temple; he massacres 3000 in 2 hours

Question 8

The Incas and Pizarro

Answer 8

The Incas and Pizarro
16th Nov 1532, Inca Atahualpa meets Pizzaro and Spaniards with 5000 at Cajamarca
Pizarro asks him to accept faith and become Emperor’s vassal (Feudal Relationship)
Atahualpa rejects breviary and throws it on the ground —> Spaniards massacre thousands and lose none
Atahualpa faces murder trial, baptised before stake and so is strangled instead

Question 9

When did Augustinians and Jesuits arrive in the Americas?

Answer 9

Augustinians and Jesuits
Augustinians arribe in Peru in 1568
Jesuits arrive in Mexico in 1572,

Question 10

Dangers of expansion - travel

Answer 10

Dangers of expansion

372 Jesuits travel to china in 1581, 127 died in transit

Question 11

Pro-Spanish expansionist views

Answer 11

Spanish rule necessary to convert
Indians of low intelligence and must be ruled by superior colonial power
Guilty of crimes - of sodomy, sacrifice and idolatry - so moral duty to stop them
Israelites justified in their invasion of the Promised Land by the crimes of the Canaanites

Question 12

Las Casas’ objection to Christian Imperialism

Answer 12

Las Casas’ objection to Christian Imperialism
Saw Indians as humans and those like Pizarro as repulsive
He thought that lack of basic rights precluded morality
Rebutted case for Spanish conquest
No right to invade, heathen practice and state not illegitimate, law of the Indians must prevail
Christian justification for war was anti-Christian and caused rejection of Christianity
Debate of 1550

Question 13

Debate of 1550

Answer 13

Debate of 1550 
Valladolid  
Las Casas vs Juan Gines de Sepulveda 
Debated role of crusader, responsibility to intervene in poor practise 
Precursor to international law

Question 14

Books on the plight of the Indians and the question of Colonial Conquest

Answer 14

Books on the plight of the Indians and the question of Colonial Conquest
Jesuit Joseph Acosta, On the Preaching of the Gospel among the Indians (1588)

Question 15

Centralisation of Spanish Control in the Inds

Answer 15

Centralisation of Spanish authority in the Indes
Council of the Indies, 1541, controlled all appointments
1569, New World Inquisition

Question 16

Turibius , Archbishop of Lima

Answer 16

Turibio, Archbishop of Lima 1580-1606
1583, Council defends liberties of Indians
Translates catechism into Quichua
Confirmed 500 000 by 1594, according to letter to Philip II
Missionary demographics

Question 17

Problems with mass conversion

Answer 17

Problems with mass conversion
In some places, thorough
New Galicia, doctrine must be affirmed before they can be baptised (belief in one god, original sin ect)
However in some places, ‘the persistence of magic, superstition and ignorance’
Cortes left instructions to worship Christian God and care for one of his horses
Fed it flowers till it died and supposed it and the Christian god were the same
Made images of the horse, believed it to be God of thunder and lightning
Language barrier
Confession through interpreter prohibited by Council of Lima 1567
Slow translation

Question 18

Progressive expansion: authority to the natives

Answer 18

Authority to the natives
‘Progressive missionaries’ of Franciscans/John de Zumaraga, native clergy in 1536
Native only college for Priests established in New Mexico; they educated them, but no mexican priests ordained
First native priest Nicolas del Puerto, Bishop of Oaxaca 1679
First Indian Priests in Chile in 1794, Paraguay in 1768, Phillipines post 1725

Question 19

Failure of settlements for Spanish

Answer 19

Failure of settlements
Policy of creating Indian-Christian villages started with Franciscans and Augustinians, soon adopted by Brazillian Jesuits
Resultantly, friars became governors and had administrative duties to perform
Indians isolated from national life, difficulty in integrating them
—> Reservations
Reservations
Reductions of Paraguay, tribe of Guaranis
30 Reduction estates
Church, hospital, convent, schools
Not the reality for most Indians

Question 20

Portugese eastern expansion

Answer 20

The Portugese - eastward expansion
Madeira, 1514
Cape Verde 1532
Goa 1533
Malacca 1557 
Macao 1576 
Mozambique 1612 
Missionary work reached into the heart of Africa via the Congo, to Sofala in the East (Africa), to Turkestan and China

Question 21

What problems did Portugal face when expanding

Answer 21

What problems did Portugese face?
Did not have military might of the Spanish but faced much stronger empires
Other religions
At court of Akbar in 1579, the Jesuits were permitted to practice Xn worship
Jainism, Hinduism, Buddhism
More accommodating than some in Spain had been (Iconoclasm) but found it difficult to alter language of Xn doctrine to make it sound more familiar
In japan, attempted to translate God to Buddhist equivalent of Dainichi
Opposition in Japan
1580 1614, alliance of warlords to establish centralised gvt in Japan.
1614, edict expels missionaries
Persecution, 1614-46
Massacre of Xns at peasant rebellion, Shimabara, 37 000 killed

Question 22

Demographics of expansion

Answer 22

Portugese conversion
400 000 coverts by 1585
2 million by 1620
15 000 in single day at Xocomilcho

Archbishop of Lima, 500 000 confirmed by 1594
Felix de Viler had confirmed 600 000 Congolese bu 1651
Franciscans baptise

Question 23

Increasing power of Rome over missionaries in 17th century

Answer 23

Increasing power of Rome in the Missionary endeavour
Kings of Spain and Portugal given power by Bull of 1508
17th century, Rome gains hold
16th century commission of cardinals to oversee missionary affairs, elevated in 1622

Question 24

Vasco de Gama

Answer 24

Vasco de Gama 1460 -
1497, commissioned by Portugese to find maritime trade route to the East
Down West Coast of Africa, wide loop out into Atlantic to swing right and travel North up East Coast to Calicut and Goa, before following East Coast back down and climbing the West Coast to return to Portugal
Concolidated trading position at Calicut (1498) and Mozambique and others —> Trading post Empire
Captured other ships and forced them to purchase Cartaz (trading agreement) §

Question 25

Christopher Columbus

Answer 25

Columbus’ journeys
Four
Initially hit San Salvador
Convinces Ferdinand and Isabella to fund more
John Green: Columbus’ discovery of the world allows us to speak, for the first time, of a truly ‘world history’

Question 26

Columbus quote on expansion

Answer 26

Columbus: Came for “Christians and spices.”

Question 27

Bernal Diaz del Castillo quote on expansion

Answer 27

Bernal Diaz del Castillo, the chronicler of the Spanish conquest of Mexico, wrote that he went to the New World “to serve God and His Majesty, to give light to those who were in darkness, and to grow rich, as all men desire to do.”

Question 28

Walter Raleigh quote on expansion

Answer 28

Walter Raleigh, about to set out to search for the mythical El Dorado, said his purpose was “To seeke new worlds, for golde, for prayse, for glory.”

Question 29

Why expand - Neccesity

Answer 29

Neccesity
Until the sacking of Constantinople, Europe had enjoyed trade in relative safety along the silk road to Asia. After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, this became more dangerous, coupled with the demise of the Mongol empire, and overland tradewith Asia was now dangerous and expensive. There was also the threat from Barbary pirates in the Mediterrean

Question 30

Why expand - Gold

Answer 30

Gold
1500 and 1650, the Spanish shipped about 180tons of gold and 16,000 tons of silver to Spain
Cortes told theAztecs, “I and my companions suffer from a disease of the heart which can be curedonly with gold.”

Question 31

A. Crosby’s Thesis

Answer 31

Disease From A. Crosby Infectious Disease and the Demography of the Atlantic Peoples

“ The arrival of large numbers of Europeans and Africans in a given area of the Americas was always followed by a rapid, even catastrophic, decline in the aboriginal population. The invaders’ gross mistreatment of the indigines steepened the decline, but its chief cause was the pathogens the invaders inadvertently brought with them, germs that caused numerous epidemics of an extent and mortality comparable to the fourteenth-century Black Death in Eurasia and North Africa.

smallpox, measles, diphtheria, trachoma, whooping cough, chicken pox, bubonic plague, malaria, typhoid fever, cholera, yellow fever, dengue fever, scarlet fever, amoebic dysentery, influenza, and certain varieties of tuberculosis

Columbus and his blue-water emulators initiated a transoceanic revolution of unprecedented magnitude and significance by carrying Old World microlife across the ocean. The migrant pathogens and parasites obliterated millions of Amerindians, broke the morale of the survivors, and rendered vacant large parts of the New World, or at least reduced the population of the original inhabitants to such small numbers that the invaders could claim that the land was going unused?an offence to God!

Question 32

Demographic evidence to support A. Crosby

Answer 32

More disease, from The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900–1900

The Jesuits , a group more given to numerical precision than most, reckoned that 50,000 had died in the Paraguayan missions in the 1718 smallpox , 30,000 in the
Guarani villages in 1734, and 12,000 i n 1765

Question 33

En Comienda (donation) system established 1503

Answer 33

Land ‘donated’ to colonists to establish villages and give them work

Question 34

Experiment, 1508-11

Answer 34

To human chieftans brought up as Spaniards and given Indians to command, it didn’t work.

Question 35

1511 Montesinos, Sermon critical of conquest

Answer 35

• Attacks ‘by what right do you keep these Indians in such cruel and terrible servitude’

Question 36

Bartholomew de Las Casas, early life

Answer 36

Bartolomé de las Casas was born in Sevilla Spain in 1484

Bartolomé studied Latin and his letters, perhaps at the cathedral school in Seville of the famous latinist and grammarian Antonio de Nebrija.[4]

When his father returned in 1498 with newfound wealth, Bartolomé told him he wanted to be a priest, whereupon the elder Las Casas sent his son to the best college in Spain at the time, Salamanca, to study canon law in preparation for the priesthood.[5]

Question 37

Bartholomew de Las Casas, early travels

Answer 37

Before finishing his initial studies, at the age of eighteen, he embarked on his first trip to the Americas, traveling to the Island of Hispaniola. arrived on April 15, 1502

While working holdings of lands and Indians, his own and those of his merchant father, he also traveled the island as a provisioner to the Spanish soldiery.[10]

During this early period, while accompanying two different military expeditions of Governor Ovando, he observed the tragic massacre of a large group of Indian leaders on the island.

Question 38

Bartholomew de Las Casas as Indian doctrinero

Answer 38

During his visit with the Pope in 1507, Las Casas informed the pontiff about events in the New World and the opportunity to convert natives.

Later, back in Spain, he completed his studies for a degree in canon law at Salamanca and then journeyed to Hispaniola with Columbus’ son and heir Viceroy and Second Admiral Diego Columbus.[13]

He took up his taskas Indian doctrinero, the official catechist to the Indians, but remained a holder of Indians and property, a contradiction his conscience could not sustain much longer.

Question 39

Bartholomew de Las Casas, turning point, 1514

Answer 39

On Pentecost of 1514, he renounced his ownership of Indians and the inter-island provisions business. He then started to preach his own provocative sermons against the wrongs of the conquest, particularly the encomienda system.

the Laws of Burgos were promulgated on December 27, 1512, the first of numerous reform attempts by Las Casas.[18]

Ximénez de Cisneros. gave Las Casas the title “Protector of the Indians”. Yet it seems that Cisneros, like the late king, balanced a variety of competing political and economic interests, which made significant reforms in the Indies difficult.

Las Casas wanted to remove them from individual encomiendas and place them in self-sustaining villages, known as the corregimientos or crown free towns. However Cisneros’ tenure as regent was cut short, he died November of 1517.

Question 40

Bartholomew de Las Casas, entered the Dominican Order on the Island of Hispaniola in 1522 at the age of 36

Answer 40

entered the Dominican Order on the Island of Hispaniola in 1522 at the age of 36

he was appointed prior of an out-post on the north coast of Dominican Republic, Puerto de Plata, where he founded a new community.[20]

Prevented from returning to Spain by his Dominican superiors, he resumed his fight for the indigenous by preaching thunderously against the abuses of the slave trade.[21]

Accused of withholding deathbed viaticum from an encomendero, he was ordered back to Santo Domingo, and officially silenced by government order for two years.[22] During this time he also began gathering materials for his Historia General de las Indias,

About the year 1530 he began writing a Latin treatise, De Unico Vocationis Modo Omnium Gentium ad Veram Religionem

Question 41

Bartholomew de Las Casas, Sublime deus and attempts of peaceful conversion

Answer 41

After he was made Dominican Vicar of Guatemala,
Mexican Ecclesiastical Conference of 1536 - drew up petitions on behalf of the Indians to be forwarded to Pope Paul III. –> Sublimis Deus, often called the Magna Carta of Indians rights.

That same year, Las Casas traveled from Mexico City to his vicariate of Guatemala to initiate a “peaceful conversion” experiment of his own. He and his friars, accompanied by Indian merchants, penetrated an unconquered region know as tierra de guerra by the Spaniards because of this territory’s hostile Indians. Las Casas promptly renamed the area tierra de vera paz. This missionary effort proved very successful and is a model of his evangelization ideas in practice.[25]

Question 42

Bartholomew de Las Casas, New laws and attempts to enforce them

Answer 42

In 1540 Las Casas returned to Spain and joined other churchmen and laymen to lobby Charles V for protection for the Amerindians.
As a result of this lobbying effort, the New Laws of 1542 were enacted that abolished slavery and the encomienda system. This effort ranked as the supreme achievement of his career.[26]

His brief and stormy tenure as a resident bishop was an undertaking of little more than a year, which nearly cost him his life.[32]

his efforts to enforce the New Laws thwarted by the local government officials, he went heavy hearted to the gathering of bishops in Mexico City. There he convinced secular authorities to respect ecclesiastical immunity and along with support from church officials produced a series of strong pro-Indian statements. He even persuaded the Viceroy to convoke a separate meeting of friars who denounced Indian slavery.

Question 43

Bartholomew de Las Casas as bishop of Chiapa

Answer 43

Las Casas was consecrated bishop in the Church of San Pablo in Seville on March 31, 1544.[28]

Armed with these forceful resolutions, Bishop Las Casas prepared for his final return trip to Spain. He appointed a Vicar General for his diocese with a select group of friars to hear confessions according to the twelve rules that he sent under strictest secrecy in his Avisos y Reglas Para Confesores.[34] Las Casas’

Confesionario was designed to enforce all the New Laws. The confessor was to deny absolution to anyone who profited from Indian life and land.

Moreover, since these rules asserted the illegality of the encomienda system and the conquest – a defiance of royal authority, because it was the king who had granted them – he was questioning royal authority.

Question 44

Bartholomew de Las Casas vs Juan Gines Sepulveda 1550-51

Answer 44

Back in Spain in 1547, Las Casas encountered accusations concerning his now public Confesionario.

he debated the humanist Juan Ginés Sepúlveda. In his counterattack Las Casas challenged Sepúlveda’s Democrates Secundus, a tract that justified waging war in the process of the conquest in order to “christianize” the peoples of the Americas.

Las Casas debated Sepúlveda at the Junta de Valladolid of 1550-1551

Argumentum Apologiae, countering that, even if some of the Indians were guilty of human sacrifice and cannibalism, it could be explained as a rational step in the development of religious thought.[38]

–> the royal cédulas of the Council of the Indies continued to apply the thesis of Las Casas.[39] Even so, as a result of Las Casas’ refutation of his opponent, works, an essential part of his advocacy on behalf of the Indians. [40] He

Question 45

Bartholomew de Las Casas, later life and death in 1566

Answer 45

published in 1552 what is perhaps the most widely read and known of his works, the Brevíssma Relación de la Destruición de las Indias.[41]

at eighty, last battle of his career against the Peruvian Indian holders wanted to buy Indians in perpetuity from the crown for eight million gold ducats.

Philip II, believing there were still hidden Inca treasures to be found to pay the counter offer agreed to the scheme. Yet, the whole affair of the offer and counter-offer came to nothing because the royal commission sent to investigate ended-up in such a state of corruption and fraud that the king halted it.

Fighting for the indigenous to the very end of his long and fruitful life, he died in Madrid at the Dominican convent of Nuestra Señora de Atocha, at the age of eighty-two, in July of 1566.

Question 46

Bartholomew de Las Casas, Brevíssma Relación de la Destruición de las Indias.[1552]

Answer 46

They are by nature the most humble, patient, and peaceable, holding no grudges, free from embroilments, neither excitable nor quarrelsome

Spaniards have behaved in no other way during tla! past forty years, down to the present time, for they are still acting like ravening beasts, killing, terrorizing, afflicting, torturing, and destroying the native peoples

Their reason for killing and destroying such an infinite number of souls is that the Christians have an ultimate aim, which is to acquire gold,

And never have the Indians in all the Indies committed any act against the Spanish Christians, until those Christians have first and many times committed countless cruel aggressions against them or against neighboring nations.

Question 47

The Columbian Exchange,

Answer 47

The Columbian Exchange was the widespread transfer of animals, plants, culture, human populations, technology, and ideas between the American and Afro-Eurasian hemispheres in the 15th and 16th centuries, related to European colonization and trade after Christopher Columbus’s 1492 voyage.[1]

Although unlikely to be intentional at the time, communicable diseases were a byproduct of the Exchange.

Question 48

The Columbian Exchange - crops and animals

Answer 48

Old World crops such as wheat, barley, rice, and turnips had not traveled west across the Atlantic,

New World crops such as maize, white potatoes, sweet potatoes, and manioc had not traveled east to Europe.

In the Americas, there were no horses, cattle, sheep, or goats, all animals of Old World origin. Except for the llama, alpaca, dog, a few fowl, and guinea pig, the New World had no equivalents to the domesticated animals associated with the Old World,

maize to China and the white potato to Ireland—have been stimulants to population growth in the Old World.

The latter’s crops and livestock have had much the same effect in the Americas—for example, wheat in Kansas and the Pampa, and beef cattle in Texas and Brazil.

Question 49

Demographic significance of the Columbian Exchange

Answer 49

The New World’s great contribution to the Old is in crop plants. Maize, white potatoes, sweet potatoes, various squashes, chiles, and manioc have become essentials in the diets of hundreds of millions of Europeans, Africans, and Asians. Their influence on Old World peoples, like that of wheat and rice on New World peoples, goes far to explain the global population explosion of the past three centuries. The Columbian Exchange has been an indispensable factor in that demographic explosion.

Question 50

Why was there initially a lesser impetus for settling North America, and why did that change?

Answer 50

• Lack of mineral reserves that precious metals, only furs
• Changed because
  a) There was nowhere else to go as Spain had a monopoly on expansion in South America
  b) Wanted to find Northwest passage to Asia
  c) Missionary zeal

Question 51

American expansion by 1600

Answer 51

-Only one failed colony at North of Florida at Roanoke, Virginia

Question 52

American expansion in the 17th century

Answer 52

• 1606, James I’s charter to establish Virginia colonies
• 1607, Jamestown Virginia
• French settlement at Quebec under Samuel de Champlain
• English explorer working for the Dutch, Henry Hudson, establishes Hudson Bay
• Dutch Settlements at Manhattan and Long Island

Question 53

Why did the English lead American expansion in the 17th century?

Answer 53

• Ability to transport whole communities
• Tobacco, the stable of Virginia and later Maryland (1634)
• Belief that england overpopulated/religious persecution encouraged colonisation of New England
• Over 1000000 by 1750s

Question 54

The Columbian Exchange in New England

Answer 54

• As might be expected, the Europeans who settled on the east coast of the United States cultivated crops like wheat and apples, which they had brought with them.
• European weeds, which the colonists did not cultivate and, in fact, preferred to uproot, also fared well in the New World.
• John Josselyn, an Englishman and amateur naturalist who visited New England twice in the seventeenth century, left us a list, “Of Such Plants as Have Sprung Up since the English Planted and Kept Cattle in New England,”

Horses arrived in Virginia as early as 1620 and in Massachusetts in 1629.

Indigenous peoples suffered from white brutality, alcoholism, the killing and driving off of game, and the expropriation of farmland, but all these together are insufficient to explain the degree of their defeat.

At the time of the abortive Virginia colony at Roanoke in the 1580s the nearby Amerindians “began to die quickly.