Motivation Flashcards
What is Motivation?
• The force that energises people to act, directs
behaviour toward the attainment of specific
goals, and sustains the effort expended in
reaching those goals (Steers & Porter, 1991)
• Easy to define
• But very complex construct
• Hard to definitively measure
• Many theories and views
Self-regulation or self-control (possibly the core of motivation) is:
“… the capacity for altering one’s own
responses, especially to bring them into line
with standards such as ideals, values, morals,
and social expectations, and to support the
pursuit of long-terms goals.”
(Baumeister et al, 2007, p. 351)
“… the self’s capacity for altering its behaviors”
(Baumeister & Vohs, 2007, p. 115)
What do we need in order to enhance self-regulation
and facilitate goal attainment?
1.Goals
2.Actions
3.Monitoring and evaluation process
4.Change process
5.Feedback mechanism
• These are the central processes found in all
models of self-regulation and goal striving
Types of motivation theories
- Need theories
- Behaviour-based theories
- Cognitive theories
- Goal theory
Need theories of Motivation
• Biological and psychological needs drive behaviour
1. Biological needs
• E.g. The need for food and the drive of hunger
2. Psychological needs
• E.g. Need for human contact and interaction
Maslow’s Need Theory
• Arranges needs in a hierarchy from lower, more basic
needs to higher-order needs, with the idea that the
lower needs have to be met before higher one can be
• (Maslow, 1965)
Self‐Actualization Esteem Needs Social Needs Safety Needs Physiological Needs
Top 3 are growth needs, bottom 2 deficiency needs
• Dominated work motivation for many
years
1. Intuitively satisfying – but needs does not group
together in the ways predicted
2. Theory could not predict when particular needs
would be important
3. No clear re’lship between needs and behv’r
4. The need construct is not precise
5. Need as biological phenomenon is problematic
6. Ignores ability to construct own perceptions of
need and how to meet them
Maslow’s need hierarchy theory
• Highly influential in applied settings
• Useful framework
• Limited empirical evidence
• But – the deficiency/growth distinction very
useful in a number of areas in terms of thinking
about the relative configurations of
deficiency/growth dimensions e.g. happiness
and money
Alderfer’s ERG Theory (1972)
• Collapses Maslow’s five categories into three
- Growth Needs
- Relatedness Needs
- Existence Needs
Money and Happiness
Yes, money can buy some happiness!
• Robert Cummins: Australian Unity Wellbeing
Index (2010)
• Sample size: 2,000 Australians
• Composite scores assessing ratings for satisfaction with many different areas of life.
• Rate Personal Well-being “0 to 100”
• Average score about 75/100 on PWBI
Low levels of income are significantly related to low PWBI – but once
lower level needs met it’s harder to get more happy
Herzberg’s Two-factor Theory
• Hygiene Factors and Motivators • Hygiene factors occur in the working environment • People complain if lacking • But in themselves insufficient to motivate • Do not lead to high performance • Motivators – opportunities for professional advancement and personal development • People need these to flourish at work
Hygiene Factors
Co. policy & administration Supervision Work itself Working conditions Salary Security Status
Motivators
Achievement Recognition for achievement Interpersonal relations Responsibility Salary – can be a motivator Advancement Growth
Needs Theories: Achievement motivation theory (McClelland, 1961)
Achievement motivation theory: Three needs are
central to worker motivation (McClelland, 1961):
1. Need for achievement: Drive to succeed and
get the job done
2. Need for power: Desire to direct and control
the activities of others and be influential
3. Need for affiliation: Desire to be liked and
accepted by others
Achievement motivation theory has been
well tested and has led to useful interventions:
1. Programs that match workers’ motivational
profiles to particular jobs
2. Achievement training programs
Cognitive and Behavioural Theories
- Expectancy Theory
2. Goal Theory
Expectancy Theory: (Vroom, 1964)
The “what’s in it for me?” theory!
• This is a cognitive and rational theory of
motivation.
• Need theories focus on individual’s past and
their needs and drives.
• Expectancy theory centres on outcomes.
Three Parts to Expectancy Theory
1. Expectancy (probability) • If I tried can I do it? 2. Instrumentality (probability) • Will doing it be worthwhile? 3. Valence (subjective value) • Do I value the outcome?
Simplistic overview: Expectancy “If I work hard, I’ll do a good job” x Instrumentality “Good work will produce rewards” x Valance “I value the rewards I’ll get”= Motivation “I’m motivated to work hard”
