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Year 12 Biology > Chapter 1 + 2 > Flashcards

Chapter 1 + 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Importance of water

A
  • Most abundant compound in our bodies
  • Main solvent for many organic molecules present
  • Ideal medium for metabolism
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2
Q

H2O structure

A
  • Single oxygen atom (negative charge) covalently bonded with two hydrogen atoms (positive charge)
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3
Q

Water molecules are highly…

A

Cohesive

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4
Q

Water molecules are cohesive meaning

A

Individual molecules of water are highly attracted to another

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5
Q

Causes of water being cohesive

A
  • Hydrogen bonding

- Slight positive/negative charges

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6
Q

Properties of water (8)

A
  • Boils at 100 degrees Celsius
  • Less dense as ice
  • Transparent
  • High specific heat capacity
  • Evaporative cooling
  • pH of 7 (pure)
  • Surface tension
  • Naturally exists in 3 states
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7
Q

Reasons for boiling point at 100 degrees

A

Hydrogen bonds no longer hold together molecules

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8
Q

Reasons for ice being less dense

A
  • Less movement within molecule when frozen

- Lattice shape

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9
Q

Hydrophilic definition

A

Substances that dissolve readily in water

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10
Q

Other terms for hydrophilic

A

Polar, lipophobic

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11
Q

Hydrophobic definition

A

Substances that do not dissolve readily in water, but dissolve readily in lipids

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12
Q

Other terms for hydrophobic

A

Non-polar, lipophilic

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13
Q

Examples of hydrophobic substances

A

Alcohol, ether

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14
Q

How substances dissolve

A

The positive and negative charge of water attracts ions in substance and break substance apart causing it to ionise.

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15
Q

How pH is worked out

A

Ratio of OH- and H+ ions

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16
Q

Neutral pH

A

7

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17
Q

Acidic pH

A

Less than 7

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18
Q

Basic pH

A

More than 7

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19
Q

How pHis kept constant by body

A

Cells produce and use hydrogen ions

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20
Q

Hydrogen bonds maximum partners (in water)

A

4

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21
Q

Main types of organic molecules

A

Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids

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22
Q

Monomers definition

A

Smaller molecules (subunits) that give rise to the polymer

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23
Q

Polymer definition

A

Molecules that consist of many repeating subunits

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24
Q

How polymers are formed

A

Condensation reactions,

Anabolic, endergonic

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25
Q

How polymers are broken down

A

Hydrolysis reaction

Catabolic, exergonic

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26
Q

Carbohydrates elements

A

Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen

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27
Q

Ratio of elements in carbohydrates

A

1:2:1

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28
Q

Subunits of carbohydrates

A

Monosaccharides, disaccharides

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29
Q

Polymer of carbohydrates

A

Polysaccharides

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30
Q

Monosaccharides

A

A molecule that is comprised of a single sugar unit

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31
Q

Polysaccharides

A

A molecule that is comprised of many sugar units

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32
Q

Disaccharides

A

Molecule that is comprised of two sugar units

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33
Q

Monosaccharide examples (4)

A

Glucose, fructose, galactose, mannose

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34
Q

Glucose

A
  • hexose sugar
  • most common source of energy
  • C6H12O6
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35
Q

Two types of glucose

A

Alpha and beta glucose

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36
Q

Fructose

A

Pentose sugar, in fruit

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37
Q

Disaccharide examples (3)

A

Sucrose, maltose, lactose

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38
Q

Sucrose

A

Glucose + fructose
Processed sugar
Form in plants (phloem)

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39
Q

Lactose

A

Glucose + galactose

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40
Q

Maltose

A

Glucose + glucose

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41
Q

Polysaccharide examples (6)

A

Starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin, pectin, inulin

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42
Q

Starch properties (branched or not, role, solubility, type of glucose)

A

Branched
Storage of energy in plants (granules)
Slightly soluble
Alpha glucose

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43
Q

Glycogen properties (branched or not, role, solubility, type of glucose)

A

Highly branched (more than cellulose)
Energy storage in animals
Slightly soluble in water
Alpha glucose

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44
Q

Cellulose properties (branched or not, role, solubility, type of glucose)

A

Unbranched
Structural component in cell walls of plants used for structure and strength
Insoluble
Beta glucose

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45
Q

Energy storage in plants (not just starch)

A

Granules in amyloplasts

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46
Q

Simple carbohydrates

A

Carbohydrates containing one or two sugar units

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47
Q

Complex carbohydrates

A

Many sugar units

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48
Q

Inorganic compounds examples

A

Salts, water, O2, CO2, minerals

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49
Q

Bonding that holds together carbohydrates

A

glycosidic linkages

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50
Q

Lipid elements

A

carbon, hydrogen, oxygen

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51
Q

How to tell difference between lipid and carbohydrate

A

in lipid, there is usually much less oxygen

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52
Q

Do lipids or carbohydrates produce more energy

A

lipids as they are more dense

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53
Q

Examples of lipids (4.5)

A

fats and oils, phospholipids, waxes, steroids

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54
Q

Fats and oils are known as

A

triglycerides/triacylglycerols

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55
Q

Triglycerol comprised of

A

single glycerol molecule bonded to 3 fatty acid tails

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56
Q

Are lipids polymers

A

no, as their subunits are discrete and non-repeating

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57
Q

Are lipids soluble in water

A

no

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58
Q

How are triglycerides stored in the body

A

adipose tissue

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59
Q

Purpose of adipose tissue

A

protects vital organs by cushioning, absorbs impact, insulator, source of fats, energy

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60
Q

Cholesterol structure

A

4 rings

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61
Q

Purpose of cholesterol in phospholipid bilayer

A

fluidity to prevent solidification, keeps in place, acts as barrier between phospholipids

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62
Q

Use of steroids

A

signalling molecules, muscle repair

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63
Q

Use of wax

A

surface coating

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64
Q

Phospholipids definition

A

A lipid molecule found in the membranes of cells, that are comprised of a glycerol molecule attached to a hydrophilic phosphate head, and a two hydrophobic fatty acids tails.

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65
Q

Phospholipids structure

A

phosphate group, glycerol molecules, two fatty acid molecules

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66
Q

Are fatty acids of phospholipids saturated or unsaturated

A

one is saturated, one is unsaturated

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67
Q

Unsaturated meaning

A

if have one or more double carbon bonds

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68
Q

Saturated meaning

A

are saturated with hydrogens; have the maximum possible number of hydrogens

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69
Q

Is phospholipid hydrophilic or hydrophobic

A

head is hydrophilic, tails are hydrophobic

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70
Q

Why do fatty acid tails face in

A

because they are hydrophobic

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71
Q

Amino acid elements

A

C, H, O, N, generally S

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72
Q

Subunits of proteins

A

amino acids

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73
Q

How many naturally occurring amino acids are there

A

20

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74
Q

Amino acids can be (polarity e.t.c.)

A

nonpolar, polar, electrically charged, acidic or basic

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75
Q

Structure of amino acid

A

carboxyl group (-COOH), amino group (-NH2), variable R/Z group

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76
Q

Dipeptide

A

2 amino acids

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77
Q

Tri-peptide

A

3 amino acids

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78
Q

Polypeptide

A

many amino acids

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79
Q

When to call it protein vs polypeptide

A

it’s a protein if it’s extremely long, multiple separate amino chains, globular

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80
Q

Globular proteins

A

soluble, lock and key

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81
Q

Examples of globular proteins (5)

A

enzymes, messenger molecules, membrane channel/carrier proteins, regulatory proteins, defensive

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82
Q

Fibrous proteins

A

insoluble, structural use

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83
Q

Amino acids are….

A

directional

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84
Q

Type of bonding amino acids use

A

peptide bonding

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85
Q

Secondary structure

A

localised coiling and folding of segments of the polypeptide chain through hydrogen bonding

86
Q

The two types of secondary structure folding

A

alpha helices, beta pleated sheet

87
Q

Tertiary structure

A

overall 3-D structure and irregular folding of the protein due to global coiling and folding

88
Q

What controls function of protein/enzyme

A

tertiary structure

89
Q

Quaternary structure

A

multiple polypeptide chains (held together through hydrogen bonding, ionic interactions, covalent bonding and hydrophobic interactions) that form a final protein

90
Q

Two types of nucleic acids

A

DNA, RNA

91
Q

DNA stands for

A

deoxyribonucleic acid

92
Q

RNA stands for

A

ribonucleic acid

93
Q

Locations of DNA

A

nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplast

94
Q

Types of RNA

A

messenger, transfer, ribosomal

95
Q

mRNA

A

transcription

96
Q

tRNA

A

carries amino acids for translation

97
Q

rRNA

A

structural component of ribosomes, also located in nucleolus

98
Q

Monomers of nucleic acids

A

nucleotides

99
Q

Two types of nucleotides

A

DNA nucleotides, RNA nucleotides

100
Q

DNA nucleotide structure

A

deoxyribose, phosphate group, nitrogenous base

101
Q

RNA nucleotide structure

A

ribose, phosphate group, nitrogenous base

102
Q

Nitrogenous bases in DNA

A

cytosine, guanine, adenine, thymine

103
Q

Nitrogenous bases in RNA

A

cytosine, guanine, adenine, uracil

104
Q

A-T bond number

A

2

105
Q

C-G bond number

A

3

106
Q

Purines

A

adenine, guanine

107
Q

Pyrimidines

A

cytosine, thymine, uracil

108
Q

DNA is…..

A

directional

109
Q

What is a polynucleotide

A

single strand ?

110
Q

DNA structure

A

double helix, two strands that run anti-parallel

111
Q

How to identify three/five prime ends

A

five has the extra group

112
Q

What holds the two strands of DNA together

A

hydrogen bonding

113
Q

Diffusion

A

the net, passive movement of molecules from a region of high molecule concentration to a region of low molecule concentration, until equilibrium is achieved. It does not require energy.

114
Q

When does diffusion stop

A

when the equilibrium is achieved

115
Q

For diffusion, bigger SA:V ratio means

A

quicker diffusion

116
Q

Facilitated diffusion

A

is the net movement of a substance through a plasma membrane via protein channels or protein carriers, from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration

117
Q

Important thing to remember about carrier/channel proteins in facilitated diffusion

A

each carrier only allows for certain substances to cross

118
Q

Osmosis

A

net movement of water molecules across a semipermeable membrane from a region of high water concentration (low solute concentration) to an area of low water concentration (high solute concentration)

119
Q

Osmosis affects the ….. of a solution

A

tonicity

120
Q

Hypertonic

A

high solute outside, osmosis out of cell

121
Q

Hypotonic

A

low solute outside, osmosis into cell

122
Q

Isotonic

A

no net osmosis

123
Q

What happens when plant cells are in hypertonic

A

plasmolysis

124
Q

Active transport

A

the net movement of dissolved substances into or out of cells against a concentration gradient, from an area of low substance concentration to an area of high substance concentration. It is an energy requiring process.

125
Q

Reasons for active transport

A

allows us to maintain homeostasis, need greater amount than can be provided

126
Q

Endocytosis

A

a process involving the entry of substances into the cell by the formation of a vesicle from the plasma membrane

127
Q

Phagocytosis

A

bulk transport of solid particles.

128
Q

Pinocytosis

A

bulk transport of liquids/fluids

129
Q

Exocytosis

A

process of bulk transport of materials out of the cell through being secreted via a vesicle

130
Q

What to use when protein vs waste exocytosis

A

protein is secreted, waste is expelled/voided

131
Q

Plasma membrane

A

partially permeable boundary of a cell separating it from its physical surroundings.

132
Q

Name of model

A

fluid mosaic model

133
Q

Fluid mosaic model

A

phospholipid bilayer + proteins, antigens, cholesterol, self molecules

134
Q

Substances that pass rapidly through lipid bilayer (gaps)

A

O2, CO2, water, amino acids, urea

135
Q

Channel proteins

A

form aqueous pores allowing specific solutes to pass through the membrane

136
Q

Carrier proteins

A

bind to solute and undergo a conformational change to transport the solute across the membrane. (if no energy is required, called facilitated diffusion).

137
Q

Cytosol

A

fluid component of cell which consists mainly of water and dissolved substances. (excludes organelles + nucleus)

138
Q

Cytoplasm

A

cytosol + organelles except the nucleus.

139
Q

Protoplasm

A

cytosol + organelles + nucleus

140
Q

Cytoskeleton

A

protein filaments that keep structure of cell

141
Q

Parts of cytoskeleton

A

microfilaments, microtubules, intermediate filaments

142
Q

Are cytoskeletons in prokaryotes

A

no

143
Q

Cell walls found in

A

bacteria, plants, fungi

144
Q

Nucleus

A

a membrane bound organelle containing the genetic material DNA. The control centre.

145
Q

Structure of Nucleus

A

souble nuclear envelope that is porous, nucleolus inside, fluid inside, granules

146
Q

Mitochondrion

A

site of aerobic respiration in eukaryotic organisms

147
Q

Structure of mitochondrion

A

double membrane, cristae = folds, matrix fluid, own DNA, own ribosomes

148
Q

Ribosomes

A

sites of protein production in cells in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes

149
Q

Free ribosomes

A

produce ribosomes for use within cell

150
Q

ER

A

organelle consisting of membrane bound channels

151
Q

Rough ER

A

produces and transports proteins (for use outside of cells)

152
Q

Smooth ER

A

produces and transports lipids for use outside of cell

153
Q

Synthesis of protein for use outside of cell

A

produced in rough ER, transported via vesicle to golgi, where is is modified and packaged into vesicle which travels to cell membrane and fuses - protein is secreted

154
Q

Golgi complex

A

organelle that packages material into vesicles for export from a cell

155
Q

Other names for golgi complex

A

Golgi body, Golgi apparatus

156
Q

Endosomes

A

digest products brought in via endocytosis

157
Q

Lysosomes

A

break down unwanted particles in cell

158
Q

Perioxomes

A

break down unwanted particles produced by metabolism

159
Q

Cilia/flagella purpose

A

movement

160
Q

Chloroplasts

A

chlorophyll-containing organelles that are responsible for photosynthesis in plant cells

161
Q

Thykaloids

A

membrane structures in grana

162
Q

Grana

A

membrane stacks that contain chlorophyll; site of light dependent stage in photosynthesis

163
Q

Stroma

A

fluid in chloroplast

164
Q

Types of junctions

A

occluding junctions, communicating junctions, anchoring junctions

165
Q

Desmosomes

A

type of cell-to-cell junction in which protein filaments span the intercellular space and hold cells together.

166
Q

Plasmodesmata

A

openings between plant cell walls through which adjacent cells are connected through cytoplasmic thread.

167
Q

Plasmodesmata allows plants to

A

communicate cell to cell

168
Q

Plastids

A

found in plants and protists

169
Q

Centrioles

A

organise spindle fibres

170
Q

Two pathways

A

mitochondrial pathway, death receptor pathway

171
Q

Mitochondrial pathway

A

mitochondria signalled, breaks down, caspases ????

172
Q

Death receptor pathway

A

lysosomes destroy them from outside of cell, caspases enter cell, breaks down, blebs, organelles break down, fragments phagocysed ?????

173
Q

Types of variables in experiment

A

independent, dependent, control, extraneous

174
Q

Other names for independent variable

A

experimental variable, tested variable

175
Q

Controlled variables

A

variables that are deliberately kept constant during the course of the experiment

176
Q

Extraneous/uncontrolled variables

A

variables in the experiment that may introduce errors to the results, typically caused due to faults in experimental design

177
Q

Purpose of a control

A

as a comparison in order to see the effects of the independent variable

178
Q

Why does repeating the experiment increase validity of results

A

reduces the effect of random error

179
Q

Can a hypothesis be proven

A

no, only disproven.

180
Q

Steps for an experiment

A
  1. Set up two groups - one control, one experimental
    1. Keep all other factors constant.
  2. How/when you are going to measure the independent variable
  3. Repeat the experiment many times.
181
Q

Characteristics of living organisms

A

MRS GREN

182
Q

MRS GREN stands for

A

Movement, Respiration, Sensitivity to stimuli, Growth and repair, Reproduction, Excretion, Nutrition

183
Q

Organisation of life

A

atoms, molecules, organelles, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, organism, population, community, ecosystem.

184
Q

Prokaryote

A

cell that lacks membrane bound organelles

185
Q

Eukaryote

A

cell that contains membrane bound organelles

186
Q

Synchrotron

A

microscope used to examine molecules

187
Q

Cell theory

A

all living organisms are composed of one or more cells, cells are the basic functional unit of life, all new cells arise from pre-existing cells

188
Q

Five kingdoms

A

bacteria, animals, plants, protists, fungi

189
Q

What polysaccharides are in the body?

A

Glycogen

190
Q

Structure of chitin monomer

A

Glucose molecule with a nitrogen containing unit i.e. amino group

191
Q

How much more energy per gram do lipids provide than glucose

A

Twice the energy

192
Q

Where is fat stored

A

Adipose tissue

193
Q

Function of cholesterol (TSFX)

A

Reduces membrane fluidity by reducing moderate temperature, but it also hiders solidification at low temperatures

194
Q

All steroids start of as

A

Cholesterol

195
Q

How many rings does a steroid molecule have

A

4

196
Q

Purpose of glycolipids and glycoproteins

A

The act as self molecules for cell recognition

197
Q

Key word to use for tertiary structure

A

‘Conformational’

198
Q

What does repeating an experiment do

A

Reduce effect of random error, increase RELIABILITY of results

199
Q

How to improve ACCURACY of results

A

Alter equipment

200
Q

Two requirements of living organisms

A

Respiration, must be made of cells

201
Q

Cyanobacteria do what

A

Photosynthesise

202
Q

Lysosomes are found in both…

A

Plant and animal cells

203
Q

Contractile vacuole

A

Contains a large amount of water and dissolved minerals and ions

204
Q

What would happen if cells didn’t have a contractile vacuole

A

The cell would burst

205
Q

What word must be used for diffusion, osmosis and facilitated diffusion definitions

A

Passive

206
Q

What is the solution surrounding cells (between the cells and cell walls) after plasmolysis occurred in plant cell

A

Hypertonic solution

Salt solution will be accepted too for these cue cards

207
Q

What are glycolipids

A

Lipids with a carbohydrate molecule attached

208
Q

Where is chitin found

A

Fungi cell walls and exoskeletons of insects

209
Q

What to remember about lipids in terms of monomers and polymers

A

Lipids have monomers but not polymers

210
Q

What is an organelle that animals cellar have that plant cells don’t

A

Centriole

211
Q

How tertiary structure holds together

A

hydrogen bonding, ionic interactions, covalent bonding (disulfide bridges), hydrophobic interactions (of R group)

Year 12 Biology (9 decks)

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