Relationships Flashcards
Outline evolutionary explanations
They focus on the adaptive nature of behaviour.
Modern behaviours are believed to have evolved because they solved challenges faced by our distant ancestors and so became more wide spread in the gene pool.
Males and female are subject to different selective pressures because males’ best strategy is to have as many sexual partners as possible whereas for females it is more advantageous to be selective.
Outline sexual selection
Key part of Darwins theory explaining how evolution is driven by competition for mates between individuals of the same sex which affects the evolution of certain traits.
Reproductive success is the basis of the evolutionary process because those who fail to mate, fail to pass on their genes. The process involves selecting the right mate and behaving in a way that will ensure the child will survive long enough to pass on its genes too.
Modern day humans have partner preferences which give the best chance for genes to be passed on- a reproductive rather than a survival advantage
what are the two types of sexual selection?
Intrasexual selection
Intersexual selection
What is intrasexual selection
Members of one sex ( usually males ) compete with each other for access to members of the opposite sex.
Winner mates and passes on genes.
Traits leading to successful mating in these contests will be passed on to the next generation.
What is intersexual selection
Involves evolved preferences ( often females ) of one sex for certain traits in the opposite sex.
Indicators become signals to the opposite sex that the individual has “good genes” likely
- to produce offspring
- to be able to give protection and support to offspring
What do men and women look for in a long term partner
Woman
- someone who can invest in resources for her and children
- someone who is able to physically protect her and children
- show signs they will be a good parent
Man
-display signs of fertility -hourglass shape
Evaluation of evolutionary explanations for partner preferences
BUSS supports
Evolutionary theory shows gender bias because it suggests only men are promiscuous (alpha bias). Men SHOULD want to be promiscuous because his reproductive success is determined by providing many offspring. Women SHOULD be choosier and less interested in casual sex. CLARK AND HATFIELD supports male promiscuity.
Human females are moderately promiscuous. BUSS suggests sexual selection theory ignores the benefits of promiscuity for females e.g producing genetically diverse or better quality offspring or even using promiscuity as a way of exiting a poor quality relationship.
PENTON-VOAK showed female choice of mate varies according to her stage in her cycle. More attracted to masculine features when ovulating, but more attracted to feminine features the rest of the time. - less masculine man may make a better long term partner.
Evidence for female promiscuity in research showing up to 1 in 20 men are bringing up children they think are genetically theirs.
NICOLSON the relevance of evolutionary influences on human reproductive behaviour are overemphasised and they are probably lost in today’s social context.
SMELLY TSHIRT STUDY suggests there may be evolutionary forces of which we are unaware.
Outline Buss
Survey involving 10,000 people from 37 widely diverse cultures who rated 18 characteristics for their importance in choosing a mate.
Resources- women rated good financial prospects, ambition and industriousness more highly than men
Physical attractiveness and youth were rated more highly by men
Both sexes wanted mates who showed intelligence, kindness and dependability - all of which are linked to the qualities needed for long term investment in children.
Evaluation of Buss
Need to be cautious in drawing conclusions because this was a study of expressed preference rather than real choice - might lack ecological validity
In a study of actual marriages, Buss confirmed men do choose younger women ( if they divorce and re-marry, they choose even younger women)
Further support is from personal dating ads with men requesting young attractive women and women requesting financially secure men
Outline self disclosure
Refers to the extent to which a person reveals personal information about themselves to another person. COLLINS AND MILLER suggest that self disclosure has been shown to influence attraction in 3 ways
1 those who engage in ‘intimate disclosures’ are generally liked more than those who do not.
2 people disclose more to those they line in the 1st place
3 the act of self-disclosure makes us like the person we are speaking to.
Self- disclosure works best when it is reciprocal
SPRECHER ET AL investigated whether reciprocal self-disclosure was more influential in determining attraction than one-sided self-disclosure and listening.
Ps who disclosed reciprocally reported greater liking, closeness, perceived similarity, and enjoyment of the interaction after the first interaction than participants who disclosed non- reciprocally.
Cultural bias
Findings relating to self-disclosure may not be true of all cultures CHEN found Americans disclose more than Chinese or Japanese.
Also, men and women in USA show more sexual disclosure than those in China.
SELFDISCLOSURE AS AN ASPECT OF ATTRACTION IS MODERATED BY THE INFLUENCE OF CULTURE
Outline Sprecher et al
Investigated whether reciprocal self-disclosure was more influential in determining attraction than one-sided self-disclosure and listening. 156 pairs of unacquainted students at a US uni took part in a structured self-disclosure activity.
Ps in some pairs took turns asking and answering questions in two interactions over Skype. In other pairs, participants either disclosed or listened in an initial interaction and then switched disclosure roles in a second interaction.
Ps who disclosed reciprocally reported greater liking, closeness, perceived similarity and enjoyment of the interaction after the first interaction than is who disclosed non- reciprocally.
Outline physical attractiveness
BUSS demonstrated that men in particular place great importance on physically attractiveness when choosing a mate.
Physical attractiveness is also important because of “the halo effect”, where we assume attractive people are also kind, sociable and successful compared to unattractive people.
A problem with using physical attractiveness in romantic relationships is that if everyone is to have a mate, not everyone can have the most attractive partner.
Outline the matching hypothesis
By walster et al, suggests that people form relationships with other people they are similar to.
Individuals looking for a partner will be influenced by the desirability of the potential match and the probability of the other person saying yes.
Tested the theory in the “computer dance” study.
Male and female undergraduates in an American university were invited to a dance. Believed they were matched with dates but were randomly assigned. Liking for dates not influenced by personality or intelligence but for physical attractiveness. Which was also more important than fear of rejection when it came to requests for a second date. Provides evidence against the matching hypothesis.
However, a later study gave ps a chance to meet before the dance, results did support the matching hypothesis as is did prefer someone who matched their own perceived attractiveness
Evaluation of the matching hypothesis
The matching hypothesis has become associated with matching in terms of physical attractiveness alone. However, more recent studies have indicated that individuals can sometimes compensate for their lack of attractiveness by offering other desirable traits e.g an older wealthy man may pair up with a younger attractive woman -complex matching
Gender differences- men value physical attractiveness in women far more than women value physically attractiveness in men. The gender difference means that it is easier for men to compensate for unattractive mess than it is for women to do so.
The role of the third party- sometimes relationship formation is determined not by the individuals themselves but by third parties e.g friends, family or internet dating sites. In arranged marriages, families may consider themselves better able to judge compatibility in the long run than their children who may be swayed by emotions or hormones.
