6 Research Methods Flashcards
1
Q
Falsifiability
A
The possibility that a statement or hypothesis can be proved wrong
2
Q
Objectivity
A
Measurement of data is not affected by the expectations of the researcher
3
Q
Replicability
A
Recording procedures carefully in order for another researcher to repeat them and verify the original results
4
Q
Empirical Methods
A
Methods of gaining knowledge which rely on direct observation or testing (not hearsay or rational argument)
5
Q
Laboratory Experiments
A
Taken place in a controlled environment, where variables can be carefully manipulated
6
Q
Strengths of Lab Study
A
-high internal validity (controls CV’s and EV’s, cause-and-effect shown)
-more repliciable as there are controlled procedures
7
Q
Weaknesses of a lab study
A
-low external validity (generalisability and mundane realism)
-low ecological validity
8
Q
Field Experiments
A
Conducted in a natural setting, where the IV is still deliberately manipulated by the researcher
9
Q
Strengths of Field Study
A
-higher external validity (realism)
-high ecological validity
-lack of demand characteristics
10
Q
Weaknesses of a Field study
A
-lower internal validity (less controlled) - less easy to replicate
-ethical issues (consent not possible)
11
Q
Natural Experiment
A
conducted when it is not possible, for ethical, or practical reasons, to deliberately manipulate the IV - it occurs naturally
12
Q
Strengths of Natural Experiment
A
-high external validity (real-world application)
-only option for ethical reasons
-less bias
13
Q
Weaknesses of a natural experiment
A
-no manipulation of IV means you cannot be sure of the relationship between IV and DV (causal relationship)
-no random allocation (CV)
14
Q
Quasi-Experiments
A
IV is simply the difference between people that exist, gender, age , disorder , etc.
15
Q
Strengths of Quasi-Experiment
A
-can be carried out in a lab
-allows us to have a comparison between 2 people
16
Q
Weaknesses of a Quasi-Experiment
A
-no random allocation
-no manipulation of IV (cannot claim cause-and-effect)
17
Q
Independent Variable
A
The thing that is changed
18
Q
Dependent Variable
A
The thing that is measured
19
Q
Extraneous Variables
A
Anything that might have an effect on the DV - can be controlled by experimenter
20
Q
Confounding Variables
A
Are not controlled for in an experiment - and which do affect the results
21
Q
Demand Characteristics
A
PPTs second guess the aims of the study, alter their behaviour
22
Q
Investigator Effects
A
Influence of researcher on DV/design decisions
23
Q
Randomisation
A
Chance methods to reduce researcher bias
24
Q
Standardisation
A
ensuring all participants have the same experience
25
Independent Groups
PPTs in each condition of the experiment are different
26
IG Strenghts
-no order effect
-less demand charactersitics
27
IG Weaknesses
-extraneous or confounding variables decrease validity
-less economical
28
Repeated Measures
All PPTs take part in all conditions
29
RM Strengths
-PPT variables controlled
-more economical
30
RM Weaknesses
-order effect (use counterbalancing)
-demand characteristics
31
Matched Pairs
Similar PPTs paired on PPT variables, allocated condition A or B
32
MP Strengths
-less PPT variables
-no order effect
-no demand characteristics
33
MP Weaknesses
-less economical
-cannot match perfectly
34
Naturalistic Observation
Real-life setting, researcher does not interfere
35
Naturalistic Obsv +
-High ecological validity
-Less Demand Characteristics
36
Naturalistic Obsv -
-Low Internal Validity
-Difficult to replicate (lack of control)
37
Controlled Observation
Set up for the purposes of the observation, PPTs are aware they are being observed, lab setting
38
Controlled Obsv+
-High Internal Validity
-Easy to replicate
39
Controlled Obsv-
-Low ecological validity
-More Demand Characteristics
40
Overt Observation
PPTs are aware they are being observed
41
Overt +
-Ethically transparent (informed consent)
42
Overt -
-Demand Characteristics
-Limited to contexts
43
Covert Observation
PPTs are not aware of the observation
44
Covert +
-Avoids DC
45
Covert -
-Ethical Concerns
-Difficult to not give away
46
PPT Observation
Observer observes from within - joins the group being studied
47
PPT Obv +
-Greater Insight to behaviours
48
PPT Obv -
-Observer Bias risk
-Observer effect
49
Non-PPT Observation
Observer watched from a distance, does not interact with PPTs
50
NPPT +
-Objective Observation
-Reduce Bias
51
NPPT -
-Limited insight
52
Structured Observation
Organised observation with behavioural categories and sampling procedures
53
Structured Obv +
-Easier to analyse
-Replicability
54
Structured Obv -
-Restricts data
-Reduced depth
55
Unstructured Observation
Researcher records all relevant behaviour without a system in place
56
Unstructured Obv +
-Rich, detailed data
57
Unstructured Obv -
-Difficult to replicate
-Subjective analysis
58
Event Sampling
Recording the behaviour every time it happens
59
Time Sampling
Time intervals - record who is doing the behaviour
60
Questionnaire
A set of written questions (items) used to assess a person's feelings and/or experiences
61
Questionnaire +
-Easy to replicate
-Easily distributed
-Closed, fixed questions are easy to analyse
62
Questionnaire -
-Social desirability bias
-Anonymity can make me lie
63
Open Questions and Evaluation
Respondent provides their answers in words
+Not restricted
-Difficult to analyse
64
Closed Questions and Evaluation
Respondent has limited answers
+Easier to analyse
-Limited Response
65
Writing Good Questions
-avoid jargon
-avoid leading questions
-use appropriate language
-use of filter questions
66
Interviews
Face to Face interaction between interviewer and interviewee
67
Interviews +
-Better awareness of truthfulness
-Mostly flexible
68
Interviews -
-Risk of interviewer bias
69
Structured Interview and Evaluation
Pre-determined set of questions
+Easy to replicate
-Cannot deviate from the topic
70
Unstructured Interview and Evaluation
Free-flowing conversation, no pre-set questions
+Flexible
-Interviewer Bias
71
Semi-structured Interview
Set questions with follow up questions depending on the answer
72
Good Interviews
-Quiet room
-Rapport
-Ethics
73
Social Desirability Bias
Behaviours that present PPT in a positive light, giving socially favourable answers due to the presence of an interviewee
74
Interviewer Effect
PPT have demand characteristics due to the presence of an interviewer/investigator
75
Correlation
A method of data analysis used to find an association (relationship) between two co-variables
76
Where is a correlation shown?
Scattergraph
77
Correlation co-efficient
Represents the strength and direction of the relationship between the co-variables as a number between -1 and 1
78
How is the correlation co-efficient calculated?
Statistical Testing, Spearmans rho or Pearsons
79
Correlation analysis +
-Easily accessible
-Helpful in describing direction and strength of relationships
80
Correlation analysis -
-Does not show a causation, possibke third variable
81
Aim
Stated intentions of what questions are planned to be answered
82
Directional Hypothesis
One-tailed test
-outcome is greater or less
83
Non-directional Hypothesis
Two-tailed test
-there will be a difference
84
Null Hypothesis
Prediction of no difference
85
Pilot Study
Small-scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation is conducted
86
Pilot Study aims
To check that procedures, materials, measuring scales, etc., work
-allow researcher to change anything if needed
87
Single blind design
PPT is unaware of the research aims of an investigation, researcher is aware
88
Double blind design
Neither PPT or researcher are aware of the research aims of an investigation
89
Control Group
Groups of PPTs who do not undergo a change in the IV condition, baseline behaviour measure
90
Confederate
Individual in a study who is not a real PPT but has been instructed by the researcher on how to behave
91
Random allocation
Technique used to reduce PPT variables, so each PPT has the same chance of being in any condition
92
Randomisation
The use of chance methods to control for the effects of bias when deciding materials and the order of conditions
93
Standardisation
Using the same standardised procedures for all PPTs in a study (avoids investigator effects)
94
Content Analysis
A research tool used to determine the presence of certain words, themes, or concepts within some given qualitative data
94
Steps in Content Analysis
-state aim and hypothesis
-decide sample
-read qualitative data and identify any recurring/emerging themes
-decide on units of analysis, develop a coding system
-analyse the findings and interpret them quantitatively in terms of the hypothesis
95
Thematic Analysis
Any emerging themes that are recurrent in the communication are studied in more depth, more descriptive than coding units
96
Opportunity sampling
Anyone in the vicinity who is willing and available
97
Opportunity sampling +
High ecological validity
98
Opportunity sampling -
PPT variables
99
Random sampling
All members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected
100
Random sampling +
Reduced Bias
101
Random sampling -
-May be an unrepresentative sample
-time-consuming
102
Stratified sampling
Reflects the proportions of people in subgroups of the target population
103
Stratified sampling +
Most representative
104
Stratified sampling -
-Time-consuming
-PPT variables
105
Systematic sampling
Every nth person is selected in target population
106
Systematic sampling +
Potentially unbiased
107
Systematic sampling -
-PPT variables
-may be unrepresentative
-time-consuming
108
Volunteer sampling
Self-selected sample, often replying to an advert
109
Volunteer sampling +
WIlling sample
110
Volunteer sampling -
Volunteer sample - certain personality (DC)
111
Informed Consent
-permission from PPT to use them and their data in the study
-parental consent for under 16
-given before the study
-informed on anything that may affect their willingness to participate
112
Dealing with informed consent
-PPTs should be issued with a consent letter or form detailing all relevant info and their right to withdraw at any time, if they agree it is signed
-Retrospective consent
-Presumptive consent
-Prior general consent
113
Retrospective consent
Consent given after the event
-full debrief
-right to withdraw
114
Presumptive consent
Find a similar group without consent and then the OG with consent
-consent is 'presumed'
115
Prior general consent
PPTs consent to potential studies but they don't know which one they will participate in
116
Deception
Deliberately misleading or witholding info from PPT at any time in the investigation
-cost-benefit analysis by ethics committee should be used
117
Dealing with deception
Full debrief should be given at the end of the study and should be given the right to withdraw
-must leave feeling the same way as they arrived
118
Protection from harm
PPTs should not be placed at any risk any more than their everyday lives, should be protected from psychological and physical harm
119
Dealing with protection from harm
-full debrief
-right to withdraw
-counselling
-cost-benefit analysis
120
Privacy/Confidentiality
Data should be confidential
121
Dealing with privacy and confidentiality
Anonymity
-numbers instead of names
-never broadcast footage
-photos not publicised
122
BPS code of ethics
A quasi-legal document to protect PPTs based on four principles
-respect
-competenece
-responsibility
-integrity
123
Ethics Committee
Weigh up costs and benefits before deciding whether a study should go ahead (cost-benefit analysis)
124
Peer Review
Assesment of scientific work by other specialists who are in the same field, to ensure that any research intended for publication is high quality
125
Main aims of peer review
-to allocate research funding
-to validate the quality and relevance of research
-to suggest amendments and improvements
126
Evaluation of peer review
-Anonymity: usual practice that the peer reviewing remains anonymous, more likely to produce a more honest appraisal. Although some may use it to criticise their rival researchers.
-Publication Bias: can create a false impression of the current state of psychology if journal editors are being selective in what they publish.
-Burying groundbreaking research: may have an effect of slowing down the rate of change within a particular scientific discipline.
127
Reliability
How consistent a measuring device is, if it is replicated, results should be the same
128
Internal reliability
Each PPT in a study is treated the same way
129
External reliability
Same/similar results found after repeated test
130
Assessment of reliability
-Test-retest reliability
-Inter-observer reliability
-Measured using a correlation (should exceed +0.80) for reliability
131
Improving reliability
Repetition of study (check results correlate)
132
Internal validity
The extent to which the observed results represent the truth in the population we are studying
133
External validity
Generalisable beyind research setting
-ecological
-population
-temporal
134
Ecological validity
Realisitic setting
135
Population validity
Applicable sample
136
Temporal validity
Is it valid now?
137
Assessment of validity
-face validity
-concurrent validity
138
Face validity
Whether it looks like it measures what it should
139
Concurrent validity
Whether findings are similar to those on a well-established test
140
Improving validity
Larger sample size, more realistic setting
141
Paradigm
A shared set of assumptions about a subject matter of a discipline and the methods appropriate to its study
142
Paradigm shift
A major change in how people think and get things done that upends and replaces a prior paradigm
143
Reporting psychological investigations
-title
-abstract
-introduction
-method
-results
-discussion
-references
-appendices
144
Qualitative data
worded data
145
Qualitative data evaluation
+rich detail
+greater external valdidity
-difficult to analyse
-subjective interpretations of conclusions
146
Quantitative data
Numerical data
147
Quantitative data evaluation
+easy to analyse
+objective - less open to bias
-less detail
-lower external validity
148
Primary data
First-hand data
149
Evaluation of primary data
+authentic
-time & effort
150
Secondary data
Second-hand data, books, websites etc
151
Evaluation of secondary data
+Cheaper
+Easily accessible
-more likely to be inaccurate
-could be outdated or incomplete
-less validity
-may not match researcher's objectives
152
Nominal data
Qualitative data, not able to be ranked
153
Ordinal data
Scaled or ranked data, subjective ratings, score
154
Interval data
Ranked data with equal measurement intervals, pre-existing measurement scales
155
Ratio data
Same as interval but includes an absolute zero
156
Type I error
Researcher accepts the alternative hypothesis (rejects the null)
157
How to reduce chance of a type I error
Use significance level of P=<0.01
158
Type II error
Rejects the alternative hypothesis (accepts the null)
159
How to reduce the chance of a type II error
Use significance level P=<0.05
160
Assessing Internal Reliability
Split half method - split test into two parts, PPT complete both parts, test the strength of the correlation between the two parts of the measure
