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Psychology > Research Methods > Flashcards

Research Methods Flashcards

1
Q

Aims usually start with

A

To investigate whether

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2
Q

A hypothesis contains what phrase

A

Significantly more / significantly lessens

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3
Q

What is a alternative / experimental hypothesis

A

Hypothesis which predict that there will be a significant effect of one variable on the other

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4
Q

What is a null hypothesis

A

Hypothesis that predict that there will be no difference / relationship between the two

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5
Q

What is the operationalisation of variables

A

Developing a way to measure it

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6
Q

Describe two tailed hypothesis

A

Is non directional , it predicts that the IV will have an effect on the DV but does not say exactly what the effect will be

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7
Q

Describe one tailed hypothesis

A

Is directional , it predicts that IV will affect the DV and it states how it will have an effect

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8
Q

What’s an independent variable

A

Variable the experimenter manipulates - assumed to have a direct effect in the dependent variable

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9
Q

What is a dependent variable

A

Variable the experimenter measures , after changes to the IV that are assumed to affect the DV

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10
Q

What are extraneous variables

A

There’s are the variables which are not the IV but could affect the results

Variables which could effect the DV

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11
Q

What are the 4 types of extraneous variables

A

Situational
Participant
Experimenter
Demand characteristics

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12
Q

Describe situational variables

A

These are the aspects of the environment that might effect the participants behaviour e.g. Noise , temperature , light

Standardised procedures are used to ensure that conditions are the same for all participants

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13
Q

Describe participant/ person variables

A

Referes to the way in which each participant varies from the other and how this could affect the results
Eg mood , intelligence , anxiety , nerves , anxiety

Controlled using random allocation

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14
Q

What is counterbalancing

A

Situational variables also include order effects that can be controlled using counter balancing , such as giving half the participants condition A first while the other half gets condition B first , this prevents improvement due to practise or poorer performance due to boredom

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15
Q

What is experimenter/ investigator effects

A

The experimenter unconsciously conveys to participant how they should behave - the experimenter might do this by giving unintentional clues to the participants about what the experiment is about and how they expect them to behave

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16
Q

Describe demand characteristics

A

These are the clues in an experiment which conveys to the participant the purpose of the research

Participants will be affected by 1) their surroundings 2) the researchers characteristics 3) researchers behaviour 4) their interpretations is what is going on in the situation

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17
Q

What are the 3 types of experimental designs

A

Repeated measures
Independent measures
Matched pairs

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18
Q

Describe repeated measures

An evaluate

A

Involves using the same subjects in each condition of an experiment

Strengths

  • subject variables , ( intelligence , motivation ) which could become extraneous variables are kept constant between conditions
  • Better statistical tests , can be used because of less variation between conditions
  • fewer subjects are required therefore more economical

Weaknesses

  • order effects such as learning fatigue or boredom may become constant errors when one condition is done after another
  • demand characteristics may become a problem as the subject of both participants may guess the aim of the study and act differently
  • different tests may be needed
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19
Q

Describe independent measures and evaluate

A

Involves using different subjects in each condition the experiment

Strengths

  • Oder effects such as learning , fatigue and boredom do not influence a second condition
  • demand characterises as less likely to guess the aim
  • same test can be used

Weaknesses

  • subject variables differ which could become a confounding variable
  • worse statistical tests can be used because of more variation between conditions
  • more subjects required therefore less economical
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20
Q

Describe matched pairs and evaluate

A

Involves using different but similar subjects in each condition of an experiment, an effort is made to match the subjects in each condition in any important characteristics that might affect performance

Strengths:

  • subject variables are kept more constant between conditions
  • order effects do not occur
  • demand characteristics
  • same text

Weaknesses

  • subject variables can never be perfectly matched
  • time consuming and difficult
  • not esubjects is required and therefore less economical
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21
Q

What are the 5 sampling methods

A 
Radom 
Systematic 
Stratified 
Opportunity 
Self selected
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22
Q

What is sampling

A

Is the process of selecting subjects to study from the target population

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23
Q

Describe and evaluate random sampling

A

Truly random sampling only occurs when every member of a target population has an equal chance of being selected
Eg putting names or every member of the target population into a hat and pulling a sample out

Strengths
- provide the best chance of an unbiased representative sample of a target population

Weaknesses
- the larger the target population, the more difficult it is to sample randomly , since compiling a selection list if everyone becomes more impractical true random sampling is therefore very rare

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24
Q

Describe and evaluate stratified sampling

A

Involves dividing the target population into important subcategories and then selecting members of these subcategories in the target population
- if a target population consisted of 75% woman and 25% men , a sample of 20 should include 15 woman and 5 men

Strengths
- a deliberate effort is made to identify the characteristics of a sample most important for it to be representative of the target population

Weakness
- stratified sampling can be very time consuming , since the subcategories have to be identified and their proportions in the target population calculated

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25
Q

Describe opportunity sampling and evaluate

A

Involves selecting those subjects that are around and available at the time . An effort may be made to not be biased in selecting particular types of subjects
- university psychologist may sample from their students

Strengths
- it is quick and convenient and often most economical

Weaknesses
- gives very unrepresentative samples and if often biased on the part of the researchers who may have chosen the subject who will be “helpful “

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26
Q

Describe self selecting sampling

A

Consists of those individuals who have consciously or unconsciously determined their own involvement in a study
- volunteers for studies or passers by who become involved in field studies

Strengths
- relatively convenient and if volunteering is made in the basis of informed consent , ethical

Weaknesses
- often unrepresentative - being biased in the part of the subject

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27
Q

Describe and evaluate systematic sampling

A

Every 4th or 10th name is taken from a list of the target populist

Strengths
- random unbiased

Weaknesses
- people might not want to take part

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28
Q

Describe pilot studies and advantages

A

Is an initial run through of the procedures to be used in an investigation. It involves selecting a few people to be participants and trying the study out on them

  • used to save money and time by identifying flaws with the research
  • help spot and ambiguities or confusion
  • sometimes the task is too hard and the researcher may get a floor effect , because no one can score at all or get a low score
  • questionnaires and surveys are often subjects to pilot studies - this enables researcher to establish whether questions are understood , whether they are too short , too long , wording is understood and doesn’t effect anyone
  • modifications can then be made and then distributed
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29
Q

What are the three experimental methods

A

Laboratory
Field
Natural/ quasi

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30
Q

Describe and evaluate laboratory experiments

A

The researcher deliberately manipulates the independent variable while maintaining structure control over extraneous variables through standardised procedures in a controlled environment

Strengths
Most scientific because
- manipulation of the independent variable indicated cause and effect
-lab increases control and accurate measurements of variables thus more objective
- lab standardisation means greater ability to replicate the study

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31
Q

Describe and evaluate field experiments

A

The researcher deliberately manipulates the independent variable but does so in the subjects own natural environment

Strengths

  • has greater ecological validly than lab since behaviour occurs in natural environment
  • less biased from sampling and demand characterised

Weaknesses

  • more biased from extraneous variables due to greater difficulty of controlling all aspects of experiment outside the lab
  • more difficult to replicate exactly
  • more difficult to record data accurately
  • ethical problems , consent , deception
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32
Q

Debating natural / quasi experiments

A

The indecent variable is changed by natural occupancy , the researcher just records the effect in the dependent variable
- are any where control is lacking over IV

Strengths

  • has greater ecological validity since natural change occurs in a natural environment
  • very little biased from sampling or demand characteristics

Weaknesses

  • hard to infer cause and effect due to little control over extraneous variable and no direct manipulation of the IV
  • virtually impossible to replicate
  • ethical , consent , deception
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33
Q

What are the types of observations

A

Naturalistic
Controlled
Participant

Non participant

Overt
Covert

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34
Q

Describe and evaluate naturalistic observations

A

Involve the recording of spontaneously occurring behaviour in the subjects own natural environment

Strengths

  • high ecological validity of observed behaviour of observer is hidden
  • can be used to generate ideas for or validate findings from experimental studies
  • something’s only ethical or practical method

Weaknesses

  • cannot legitimately infer cause and effect relationships between variables that are only observed but not manipulation
  • lack of control over conditions make replication more difficult
  • ethical problems of invasion of privacy
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35
Q

Describe controlled observations

A

Involves the recovering of spontaneously occupy behaviour but under conditions contrived by the researcher

Strengths

  • more control over environment which leads to more accurate observations
  • greater control leads to easier replication
  • usually avoids ethical problems

Weaknesses

  • participant reactivity may distort the data if subject is aware if being observed
  • lower ecological validity then naturalistic observations can cause demand characteristics
  • cause and edgy cannot be inferred
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36
Q

Describe and evaluate participant observations

A

Involve the researcher becoming involved in the everyday life of the subjects either with or without their knowledge

Strengths

  • high ecological validity if participant undisclosed
  • extremely detailed and in depth knowledge

Weaknesses

  • difficult to record data promptly and objectively and impossible to replicate
  • participants behaviour might be influence subjects
  • ethical problems of deception with undisclosed participants
  • cause and effect cannot be inferred

Researcher may be too involved and lose ability to object / influence results

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37
Q

Describe non participant observation

A

Where the psychologists is not directly involved in what is being observed and recorded behaviour from a distance , remain objective
- may not be a true understanding of behaviour when removed from situation

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38
Q

Describe overt observations

A

Where the psychology is is open about their observations / make presence obvious

  • ethical
  • observer effect , unreliable results
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39
Q

Describe covert observations

A

Where the psychologist observes an individual/ groups without people being aware of this.

  • ethical , no consent
  • no observer effect
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40
Q

What is observer biased

A

Can occur when conducting an observation , this means that the researchers expectations have an effect on the results

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41
Q

What is inter observer reliability

A

That an observation has been coded in the same way by two researchers and the same results have been found

42
Q

How do you prevent observer bias and gain inter observer reliability

A

Researchers can observe side by side , first the will discuss their behaviour categories and the meaning of each category , then they observer the same people at the same time without consulting each other , each making separate recordings on different observation schedules , at the end of the observation they then compare the two sets and if they are the same or very similar they have inter observer reliability

43
Q

What are the three different ways of recording data in observations

A

Continuous
Time
Event

44
Q

Describe continuous recording

A

Observing for the full length of time , recording everything you can see in detail

45
Q

Describe time sample

A

Occurs when the researcher decides on a time say 5 seconds and then record what behaviour is occurring at that time - some behaviours are missed - observations not representative

46
Q

Describe event sampling

A

Consists of the researcher recoding an event every time it happens
- too many observations happens at once it may be difficult to record everything

47
Q

What is a self report method

A

Is any method which involves asking a participant about their feelings , attitudes , beliefs

48
Q

Examples is self report methods

A

Questionnaires

Interviews

49
Q

Describe questionnaires

A

Are a type of self report method which consists of a set of questions usually in a highly structured written form , they can contain open and closed question and participants record their own answers

50
Q

Describe interviews

A

Are a type of spoken questionnaire where the interviewer records the responses

They can be structured whereby there is a predetermined set of questions or unstructured whereby no questions are decided in advance

51
Q

Evaluate self report methods

A

Able to study large samples of people fairly easy and quickly

May not respond truthfully because they don’t remember or because they wish to present themselves in a desirable man at - social desirability biased

Questions are not always clear so participant doesn’t fully understand , therefore making data unvalid

If questionnaires are sent out via paid , there could be low response rate

Questions can often be leading

Instructed interviews can be time consuming and difficult to carry out

Structured interviews can restrict the respondents replies

52
Q

What are closed questions

A

Are questions which provide a limited choice

Provide quantitative data which is easy to analyses , however these do not allow the participants to give such in depth insights

Eg - age
Fave cheese

53
Q

What are open questions

A

Are those questions which invite the respondent to provide their own answer and provide qualitative data , more difficult to analyse as they can produce more in depth responses

54
Q

Describe and evaluate rating scales

A

One of the most common tying scales is the likert scale - a statement is used and the participant devised how strongly they agree or disagree with the statement

Strengths - give us an idea about how strongly a participant feels about something , therefore gives more detail
- gives quantitative data which is easier to analyse qb

Weaknesses - there is a tendency for people to response toward the middle of the scale to make them look less extreme
-does not provide in depth replies

55
Q

Describe and evaluate Fixed choice questions

A

Are phrased ask that the respondent has to make a fixed choice answer , usually yes or no

Strengths
- easy to measure and quantify it also forces a participant to not chose a middle answer

Weaknesses
- may not feel the desired response is available and the answer is not in depth

56
Q

Evaluate structured interviews

A

S

  • easy to quantify and analyse
  • reliable , replicable and generalisable

W
- less valid as can distort or ignore answer due to restrictions

57
Q

Evaluate semi structured interviews

A

S

  • fairly flexible and sensitive
  • fairly reliable and easy to analyse

W
- flexibility of phrasing and timing could lead to lower reliability , open ended answers are harder to analyse

58
Q

Evaluate unstructured interviews

A

S

  • highly detailed and valid data
  • extremely flexible and natural

W
- very unstandardised therefore not very replicable or generalisable , difficult to analyse

59
Q

What are the 6 things to consider when writhing a questionnaire

A 
Length 
Distribution 
Type of question 
Social desirability 
Langue 
Pilot study
60
Q

A positive correlation means

A

As one variable increases , so does the other

61
Q

A negative correlation means that

A

As one variable increases , the other decreases

62
Q

Evaluations of correlations

A

S
- allows researchers to statistically analyse situation that could not be manipulated for ethical or practical reasons

W

  • cannot infer cause and effect
  • sometimes variables are not related
63
Q

what is a case study

A

an indepth detailed study of an individual or particular group
- usually applied to an unusual or valuable examples of behaviour which may provide important insights into psychology

64
Q

evaluations of case studies

A

s

  • rich qualitative data which provides an indepth understanding
  • can track and describe change over time and not just a snatshot

w

  • lack of generalisability
  • non standardised methods may be difficult to replicate
  • heavy reliant on retrospective and self report data
65
Q

what’s in a case study

A
  • case history
  • description and diagnosis
  • record of treatment
  • record of outcomes
66
Q

what is content analysis

A

is a systematic method used quantify the contents of any form of media. it is very similar to the observational method but does not involve direct observations of people , instead the researcher analyses a persons communication . the units analysed may be individual words, ideas, characters, images or the amount of time / space devoted to a particular issue. it is also possible to analyse what is not there (eg if there’s no female characters in a children’s story )

data is usually collected using a coding or category system , recording the frequency with which each unit occurs.

67
Q

evaluate content analysis

A

s

  • enables the analyst of a wide range of materials
  • no ethical problems because people are not being directly dealt with

w

  • the findings are limited by the researchers expectations as categories are decided beforehand
  • interpretations may be subjective
  • behaviour may be taken out of context
68
Q

what Is qualitative research and examples

A

gathers information which Is non numerical
-eg diary, open ended questionnaires, unstructured interviews

  • lots of detail , however hard to analyse
69
Q

what is quantitative research and examples

A

gathers data in numerical form which can be put into categories, rank order, and can be used to construct graphs
- eg experiments and closed questions

  • easy to analyse however lack of details.
70
Q

what is primary data and how do you gather primary data

A
  • gather yourself
  • gathered first hand, directly by researchers
  • questionnaires , observation ,, experiments
71
Q

what is secondary research and how do you gather it

A
  • data that has already been gathered by someone and are used by someone else for further research
  • meta analysis
72
Q

evaluation of primary data

A

s

  • more valid than secondary because the study is designed for the purpose of the research
  • info gathered at the time of study so info doesn’t chage over time

w

  • expensive as has to start from scratch
  • time consuming
73
Q

evaluation of secondary data

A

s
- cheaper

w

  • data gathered for another purpose so might not be valid
  • could have been carried put a while go so cultures/ validity could change over time
74
Q

what is meta analysis

A

is a statistical technique for combining the findings of several studies of a certain research area
- combines lots of small studies into one larger one , it allows for identification of trends and relationships that wouldnt be possible from smaller individual studies

75
Q

what is thematic analysis

A

is a qualitative analytic method for identifying, analysing and reporting themes within data , with patterns identified through data coding

  • organises , describes and interprets data , the identified themes become the categories for analysis.
76
Q

what are the six stages of thematic analysis

A

1- familiarisation with the data- involves intensely reading data, to become immersed in its content

2- coding - involves generating codes that identify features of the data important to answering the research questions

3-searching for themes- involves examining the codes and data to identify patterns of meaning

4- reviewing themes- involves checking the potential themes against the data

5- defining and naming themes- involves a detailed analysis of each theme and creating an informative name for each one

6- writing up- involves combining together the information gained from the analysis

77
Q

define measures of central tendency

A

it is a way to describe the centre of a data set. it is a single value that describes the way in which a group of data is clustered around a central value

78
Q

define measure of dispersion

A

describing how spread out a set of data is

79
Q

description and evaluation of a mean

A
  • average of a set of numbers, all added together then divided by how many numbers
  • all data is used to find the answer so is a good representation of the data
  • very large or small numbers may distort answer
80
Q

description and evaluation of mode

A
  • most common number
  • unaffected by extreme scores
  • may be more than one mode
81
Q

description and evaluation of median

A
  • the middle number
  • very big or small numbers don’t affect it
  • can take a long time if there’s a large set of numbers
82
Q

description and evaluation of range

A
  • largest number minus smallest number
  • shows spread of results, and how spread out the numbers are
  • affected by very high or low results
83
Q

describe the normal distribution curve

A
  • bell shaped
  • most people will score the mean scores “normally distributed”
  • a small number of scores will be very high or very low
84
Q

what is standard deviation

A

a statistic that tells you how tightly all the various data is clustered around the mean

when data is bunched together , the SD is small
when data is spread apart the SD is larger

85
Q

what are the strengths of correlation

A 
perfect 
strong 
moderate 
weak 
zero
86
Q

what are the graphical descriptive statistics

A

bar chart
histogram
scattergraph
normal distribution

87
Q

describe bar charts

A

shows data from those categories that the researcher is interested in comparing eg two or conditions in an experiment

88
Q

describe histograms

A

shows data from all categories which has continuous data . the column width for each category interval is equal so the area of the column is proportional to the number of cases it contains in the sample

89
Q

describe scatter graphs

A

plots pairs of scores against each other to show their correlational relationship , use best line of fit

90
Q

what are the two types of skews in frequency graphs

A

negative

positive

91
Q

describe a negative skew

A
  • the highest point is far left

- mode is always more than mean and medium

92
Q

describe a positive skew

A
  • the highest point is far right

- mean is usually less than median

93
Q

what are the types of validity

A

internal

external

94
Q

describe internal validity

A

Internal validity refers to whether the effects observed in a study are due to the manipulation of the independent variable and not some other factor. In-other-words there is a causal relationship between the independent and dependent variable.
Internal validity can be improved by controlling extraneous variables, using standardized instructions, counter balancing, and eliminating demand characteristics and investigator effects.

95
Q

describe external validity

A

External validity refers to the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other settings (ecological validity), other people (population validity) and over time (historical validity).
External validity can be improved by setting experiments in a more natural setting and using random sampling to select participants.

96
Q

what are the ways of assessing reliability

A

split half method
test retest
inter-rater / inter observer

97
Q

describe split half method

A

The split-half method assesses the internal consistency of a test, such as psychometric tests and questionnaires. There, it measures the extent to which all parts of the test contribute equally to what is being measured.
This is done by comparing the results of one half of a test with the results from the other half. A test can be split in half in several ways, e.g. first half and second half, or by odd and even numbers. If the two halves of the test provide similar results this would suggest that the test has internal reliability
-The split-half method is a quick and easy way to establish reliability. However it can only be effective with large questionnaires in which all questions measure the same construct. This means it would not be appropriate for tests which measure different constructs.

98
Q

describe the test retest methods

A

The test-retest method assesses the external consistency of a test. Examples of appropriate tests include questionnaires and psychometric tests. It measures the stability of a test over time.
A typical assessment would involve giving participants the same test on two separate occasions. If the same or similar results are obtained then external reliability is established. The disadvantages of the test-retest method are that it takes a long time for results to be obtained.

-The timing of the test is important; if the duration is to brief then participants may recall information from the first test which could bias the results. Alternatively, if the duration is too long it is feasible that the participants could have changed in some important way which could also bias the results.

99
Q

describe the inter rater / inter observer method

A

-The test-retest method assesses the external consistency of a test. This refers to the degree to which different raters give consistent estimates of the same behavior. Inter-rater reliability can be used for interviews
-avoids biased
-Where observer scores do not significantly correlate then reliability can be improved by:
@Training observers in the observation techniques being used and making sure everyone agrees with them.
@Ensuring behavior categories have been operationalized. This means that they have been objectively defined.

100
Q

describe peer review

A

Peer review is a process that takes place before a study is published to ensure that the research is of a high quality, contributes to the field of research and is accurately presented. The process is carried out by experts in the related field of research
Peer review has an important function, as it ensures that only high quality research is disseminated and available as a body of scientific evidence. Such evidence frequently becomes part of mainstream thinking and practice, so it is vital that conclusions that these are based on are the subject of valid methods and accurate presentation.
-If research was published without this process of review and checking, poor research might be disseminated which would damage the integrity of that field of research, or that of the discipline as a whole.

101
Q

what are 7 parts to writing a psychological report in order

A
  • title
  • abstract
  • introduction
  • method
  • results
  • discussion
  • referencing

Psychology (7 decks)

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