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A-Level Biology > 6.2 Cloning and biotechnology > Flashcards

6.2 Cloning and biotechnology Flashcards

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1
Q

clone definition

A

genetically identical to their one parent

formed by asexual reproduction

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2
Q

cloning in eukaryotes

A

mitosis

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3
Q

cloning in prokaryotes

A

binary fission

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4
Q

examples of natural clones

A

animals: identical twins
plants: corms, leaves, suckers, bulbs, rhizomes, runners, tubers

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5
Q

cloning in plants / asexual reproduction

A

vegetative propagation

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6
Q

advantages of clones

A

quick (increased chance of population survival and genetic material being passed on, quicker evolution)
all offspring have genes to survive in environment (increased chance of survival)
possible when sexual reproduction fails/isnt possible (maintain population numbers)

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7
Q

disadvantages of clones in general

A

overcrowding (increased competition)

no genetic variation (susceptible to disease / sudden changes in environmental factors = population may die)

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8
Q

vegetative propagation definition

A

production of structures in an organism that can grow into new organisms, genetically identical to the parent (thus being clones)

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9
Q

how natural cloning in plants is possible

A

many parts of plants contain meristematic, undifferentiated tissue
can divide and differentiate to form a range of different cell types

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10
Q

runners, rhizomes and suckers features

A

plants grow horizontal stems
underground = rhizomes
on surface of ground = runners/stolens

Suckers = stems that grow from roots of plants

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11
Q

bulb features

A

underground stem grows into series of fleshy leaf bases

apical bulbs grows from it which grow into separate plants

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12
Q

corms features

A

underground stem with scaly leaves and buds
remain in ground over winter
in spring, buds grow to produce one or more new plants
solid

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13
Q

leaves in cloning features

A

clones grow on leaf margins

drop off leaf and take root

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14
Q

tubers features

A

underground stem
will grow into one or more plants
can produce many new tubers (potatoes) later that year

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15
Q

cloning in animals

A

identical twins
when zygote divides as normal but 2 daughter cells split to become separate cells
develop as new individuals

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16
Q

plant cuttings method

A

stem is cut at a node (2 leaf joints)
remove bark if present to avoid formation of a callus
add rooting powder depending on plant species (some take root less easily)
cut end of stem is buried into soil
new roots begin to grow into soil
this process is also possible from root, leaf and scion cuttings

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17
Q

grafting method

A

place portion of one plant (bud/stem/scion) into stock of another plant (root/branch/stem)
forms a graft union and both will continue to grow
union is wrapped and waxed to stabilise it

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18
Q

micropropagation method

A

tissue from apical buds taken as it is meristematic and still undergoing mitosis (explant)
surface cleaned using dilute bleach/alcohol to ensure aseptic conditions (no bacteria will then compete with plant tissue)
explant placed onto nutrient medium to encourage mitosis
forms a callus (mass of undifferentiated cells)
callus subdivided and placed in new nutrient medium to encourage differentiation of tissue
contains auxins, cytokinins, magnesium, nitrates, sucrose
callus cells growth into plantlets and can then be placed into sterile soil

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19
Q

auxins in micropropagation

A

stimulate formation of root hairs

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20
Q

cytokinins in micropropagation

A

stimulate shoot growth

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21
Q

magnesium in micropropagation

A

helps plant make chlorophyll

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22
Q

nitrates in micropropagation

A

needed in protein synthesis

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23
Q

sucrose in micropropagation

A

converted to glucose for respiration

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24
Q

advantages of clones instead of seeds

A 
maintains favourable characteristics of mother plant
quicker to produce, more produced
more likely to survive in lab conditions
disease-free
easily genetically manipulated
can be used for cloning infertile plants
easy to transport/store
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25
disadvantages of clones instead of seeds
``` geneticaly identical (all susceptible to some diseases) = loss in genetic diversity farmers have to buy plants from suppliers = high cost labour intensive patented property ```
26
embryo twinning method
zygote created by IVF allowed to divide to form small ball of cells cells separated and continue to divide each of these cells placed into surrogate mother
27
use of embryo twinning
cloning “elite” farm animals | scientific research
28
cloning animals by nuclear transfer method
egg cell enucleated adult somatic cell diploid nucleus from a different animal removed and injected into enucleated egg cell (or adult cell fused with enucleated egg cell) cell given a small electric shock to stimulate mitosis cells grows into an embryo in vitro embryo can be split into several embryos to produce artificial identical twins embryo(s) implanted into surrogate mother(s)
29
collecting eggs for cloning
treated with hormones with FSH superovulation occurs collect eggs from ovaries
30
why clone is not entirely genetically identical to nucleus donor
mitochondrial DNA found in cytoplasm | only DNA in nucleus of cell donor is taken
31
therapeutic cloning uses
new tissues and organs can be grown and replaced in patients where they are damaged e.g. skin grafts, beta cells producing insulin, spinal cord damage
32
how surrogates could be prepared for implantation of embryo
hormone treatments | prepare uterus for implantation by causing lining to thicken so increased blood supply for the placenta
33
advantages of animal cloning
``` scientific research elite farm animal production produce desirable characteristics reduce possibilities of disease species preservation ```
34
disadv of animal cloning
lack of genetic diversity | ethical reasons
35
biotechnology definition
industrial use of living organisms to produce food, drugs or other products
36
4 main areas of biotechnology
food drugs enzymes other products
37
major advantages of microorganisms in biotech
cheap + easy to grow genetically modified easily (less ethical issues) high temp. not required (saves fuel costs) normal atmospheric pressure can be used (safer) not dependent on climate (can be done anywhere) products released (easy to harvest) short life cycle (can reproduce very quickly) purer products produced waste products from other processes can be reused (occasionally requires pre-treating)
38
how yoghurt is made
milk undergoes fermentation Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophillus convert lactose to lactic acid acidity denatures milk protein, causing it to coagulate bacteria partially digests milk (easy to digest) other bacteria may be added as probiotics
39
probiotics in yoghurt
bacteria that may benefit human health by improving digestion of lactose aid in gastrointestinal function stimulate immune system
40
how cheese is made
pre-treated with Lactobacillus bacteria to produce lactic acid from lactose mixed with rennet enzyme rennin (chymosin) in rennet coagulates casein (milk protein) in presence of Ca2+ to form curd curd separated from whey (liquid part) by cutting, stirring and heating bacteria continues to grow as curd cut into moulds flavour determined by later ripening and maturing processes
41
where rennin is found
stomachs of young mammals
42
how rennin coagulates casein
kappa-casein (keeps casein in solution) is broken down casein is now insoluble casein precipitated by Ca2+ binds molecule together to form curd
43
method and microbes in baking bread
mix and knead ingredients together to form dough prove dough in warm environment (allows yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) to respire anaerobically) produces CO2 bubbles, causes dough to rise alcohol produced in proofing is evaporated off in cooking
44
microbes in alcoholic beverage production
wine: yeast from grapes’ skin produces alcohol when anaerobically respire from natural sugars beer: yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisae) ferments sugar from barley hops give bitter taste
45
penicillin production
Penicillium chrysogenum made in batch culture (secondary metabolite so only produced when pop. has reached certain size) penicillin made after 6-8 days in fermenter precipitated out of mixture by potassium compounds, purified and put into tablets
46
insulin production method
made in continuous culture (primary metabolite bacteria genetically modified and grown in fermenter continually harvested, purified and bottled as medicine
47
bioremediation method
microbes clean polluted soil and water use toxic pollutants to respire and convert them to less harmful substances Pseudomonas
48
SCP stands for
single-cell protein | mycoprotein
49
most frequently used microorganism for SCP production
Fusarium venenatum
50
batch fermentation features
fixed quantity of nutrients at start (no more added) at end, process removed and tank emptied (process started again) growth slower easy to set up and maintain contamination = loss of just one batch less efficient produces secondary metabolites after exponential phase during stationary phase (nutrients deplete)
51
continuous fermentation features
nutrients and products added and removed from culture continuously growth faster quite difficult to set up and maintain contamination = loss of more product more efficient produces primary metabolites during exponential phase (nutrients dont deplete and cultures stays in exponential phase)
52
standard growth curve phases
``` lag phase (bacteria start to grow) exponential phase (population grows exponentially) stationary phase (population growth stops as death rate = reproduction rate) death phase (bacteria die faster than they multipy) ```
53
metabolites definition
products of metabolic reactions
54
primary metabolites features
produced during exponential growth phase essential for normal cell growth/reproduction matches growth in population
55
secondary metabolites features
produced during stationary phase not essential for normal cell growth/reproduction doesnt match growth in population
56
microorganism population growth formula
``` N = No x 2^n No = number of cells in population at start N = number of cells in population n = number of generations that have occured ```
57
importance of asepsis when manipulating microbes
reduces competition prevents a reduced yield prevents a spoilt product (toxic chemicals produced by unwanted microbes)
58
asepsis vs sterile
``` asepsis = no microorganisms at all sterile = no harmful (pathogenic) microorganisms ```
59
types of growth medium
broth (liquid) | agar (jelly like substance in a Petri dish)
60
2 main nutrient requirements for growing microorganisms
carbon-containing compounds for respiration | nitrogen-containing compounds for protein synthesis
61
how to avoid contamination when transferring microorganisms from broth to agar
wash hands disinfect surfaces heat the air so microorganisms don’t settle flame the opening to any microorganism when containing vessel before and after flame equipment limit air exposure e.g. when Petri dish lid is removed
62
sterilisation for growing microorganisms method
growth medium sterilised in autoclave heated to 121°C for 15 minutes and poured into sterile Petri dish sterilise equipment through heating
63
inoculation methods
streaking: wire of inoculating loop used to drop liquid medium onto agar, loop is used to drag medium across surface of agar spreading: sterile glass spreader (or cotton bud moistened with distilled water) can move liquid medium across the whole surface of agar seeding: sterile pipette used to transfer a drop of liquid medium to agar surface or before it is poured for setting
64
incubation details
``` stored upside down warm environment examined after 24-36 hours do not open each colony is from a single bacteria sterilised after use and before disposal ```
65
inoculation steps
loop flamed cap removed from sterile broth unheated loop inserted into tube of sterile broth loop removed from broth and tube mouth is flamed tube enclosure returned to tube
66
immobilised enzyme definition
enzymes attached to an insoluble material in order to keep them separate from the reaction mixture
67
immobilised enzyme advs. in general
more cost-effective as enzyme remains separate from products and can be reused
68
how to immobilised enzymes method
entrapment: trapped in alginate beads or cellulose mesh adsorption: stuck onto collagen/clay/resin/porous glass (covalent bonding to clay) membrane separation: partially permeable membrane
69
advs of immobilised enzymes in large scale production
product is uncontaminated by enzyme therefore no downstream processing needed (cheaper) not lost during process and therefore reuseable (cheaper) matrix protects the enzyme so enzyme works at higher temp. so reactions can be faster as done at higher temp. matrix protects enzyme so enzyme works in changed pHs suitable for continuous culture (long shelf-life)
70
disadv of immobilised enzymes in large scale
immobilisation difficult/expensive | can be less efficient as substrate has to get through beads so don’t form ESCs as readily
71
aminoacylase function
produces pure samples on L-amino acids by removing acyl group from the nitrogen of an N-acyl-amino acid
72
glucoamylase function
during hydrolysis of starch, short polymers of glucose are made (dextrins) which can then be further hydrolysed into glucose
73
glucose isomerase function
converts glucose to fructose to make high fructose corn syrup
74
nitrile hydratase definition
converts nitriles to amides (some used to make plastics)
75
lactase function
converts lactose to glucose and galactose by hydrolysis to make lactose-free milk
76
penicillin acylase/amidase function
creates semi-synthetic penicillin

A-Level Biology (24 decks)

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