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PSYO 1022 > Development (Ch 10) > Flashcards

Development (Ch 10) Flashcards

1
Q

The 3 questions human development aims to answer

A
  1. Does development unfold in distinct, discontinuous stages, or it is a gradual, continuous process?
  2. How do nature and nurture interact to make us who we are?
  3. To what extent do we stay the same over time versus change?
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2
Q

Interactionist approach

A
  • interactionist believe that all three ideas are incorporated in human development:
    1. physical
    2. cognitive
    3. social-emotional
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3
Q

Cross-sectional design

A
  • allows researchers to examine individuals of different ages at the same point in time
  • allows researched to collect data quickly and inexpensively
  • disadvantage is that participants grew up in different historical contexts, so researchers cannot be certain whether differences between groups are due to age or social and political conditions (Cohort effect)
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4
Q

Cohort Effect

A

-when it cannot be determined whether differences between experimental groups are due to age difference or growing up in different historical contexts (ie. different social and political conditions)

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5
Q

Longitudinal design

A
  • avoids the cohort effect
  • repeatedly test the same group of people over a number of years
  • allows researchers to look at real age-related differences
  • more sensitive to developmental influences
  • more costly and time consuming
  • participant drop-out (selective attrition) is a problem
  • still cannot be sure whether changes in intellectual ability are due to aging or are unique to particular individual (history effect)
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6
Q

History effect

A

-unable to distinguish whether a change in intellectual ability is due to aging (and applicable to whole population) or whether is it unique to specific individual being researched

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7
Q

Longitudinal-sequential design

A
  • addresses problem of cohort and history effects
  • combination of cross-sectional and longitudinal designs
  • researchers repeatedly test 2 or more age cohorts as they grow older
  • can compare cohorts at same age to see if they exhibit the same behaviours
  • can also determine whether cohorts follow a similar developmental pattern
  • costly and time consuming
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8
Q

Germinal stage

A
  • stage 1
  • beings at conception
  • lasts for two weeks
  • at conception the fertilized egg is a single-celled zygote
  • divides around 36 hours after conception
  • by day 7, multi-celled organism (blastocyte) travels down Fallopian tubes to attach to uterine wall
  • 30%-50% of blastocytes dont implant properly
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9
Q

Zygote

A

-single-called fertilized egg

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10
Q

Blastocyte

A

-multi-celled organism that develops around day 7

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11
Q

Embryonic stage

A
  • occurs around 2 weeks if implantation is successful
  • now called embryo
  • stage is marked by formation of the major organs: NS, heart, eyes, ears, arms, legs, teeth, palate and external genitalia.
  • continues until about 8 weeks
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12
Q

Duration of development of individual organs

A
  • CNS: week 2-38
  • Heart: 3-9
  • Arms: 4-9
  • Eyes: 4-38
  • Legs: 4-9
  • Teeth: 6-18
  • Palate: 6-14
  • External Genitalia: 7-38
  • Ears: 4-18
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13
Q

Fetal Stage

A
  • determined by formation of bone cells
  • around 8 weeks
  • between 8-12 weeks heart beat can form
  • fetus rapidly increases in size
  • neural growth can be approx. 3mil neurons per minute
  • neurons begin neural migration
  • soon after NS forms, embryo begins to move (4-6 months)
  • begins to respond to sound around 26 weeks
  • sounds that fetus is regularly exposed to changes their neural networks and are retained in memory for 4m after birth
  • fetus sensitive to odour/taste in amniotic fluid
  • at birth infants are near sighted until at least 6 months
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14
Q

Neural migration

A
  • neurons move from one part of the brain to their more permanent home
  • factors that interfere with neural migration (prenatal exposure to certain toxins or viruses) can increase risk of psychological disorders
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15
Q

Body and brain size at birth

A
  • at birth the brain will only weigh about 25% as much as an adult brain
  • by age 2 it will be about 75%
  • by age 4 it will be about 90%
  • at birth the body will weigh about 5% as much as an adult body
  • by age 2 it will be about 20%
  • by age 4 about 30%
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16
Q

Prenatal programming

A
  • process by which events in the womb alter the development of physical and psychological health
  • common factors are maternal nutrition, and teratogens (substances that can cause permanent damage)
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17
Q

Teratogens

A
  • Substances that can cause permanent damage during prenatal stage
  • known teratogens include viruses, alcohol, nicotine, prescriptions drugs, and radiation
  • viruses may have a big impact early in pregnancy and little toward the end
  • developing flu in the first 4-6 months increases risk of schizophrenia for child later in life
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18
Q

Maternal nutrition

A

-folic acid and vitamins used to reduce rates of abnormalities in the NS
-schizophrenia and antisocial personality disorder likely to occur if mother is malnourished
-iron deficiency can lead to infant anemia or low RBC count, which affects how well body functions and cognitive impairment, motor deficiencies and poor emotional functioning
-built in toxin detector… ie morning sickness
-most common with foods susceptible to moulds, and bitter substances (which can cause defects)
-

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19
Q

Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder

A
  • alcohol causes damage to central nervous system, low birth weight, physical abnormalities in the face, head, heart, and joints, intellectual disability, and behavioural problems
  • in canada estimated that every 1 in 1000 children suffer from FASD
  • can happen from having a single drink to excessively drinking
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20
Q

Nicotine effect on prenatal environment

A
  • interferes with oxygen supply to the fetus
  • can lead to premature and low-birth weight babies
  • increased risk for stillbirth
  • doubled risk of child developing bipolar disorder
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21
Q

Caffeine effect on prenatal environment

A
  • studies yielded mixed results
  • limited evidence that caffeine consumption leads to birth defects
  • some studies suggest a link between heavy caffeine consumption and increased risk of miscarriage or low-weight baby
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22
Q

Prescription drugs on prenatal development

A
  • antidepressants can cause respiratory problems, increased risk of premature birth, and short-lasting effects on motor development
  • safest is to avoid prescription drugs prior to pregnancy
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23
Q

Early motor development

A
  • children’s motor development follows a cepholocaudal trend (development processed from head downward)
  • also follows a proximodistal patter (growth f=proceeds from centre of body outward)
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24
Q

Major motor development milestones in infancy

A
  • by 2 months, babies lying on their stomach can life their head
  • by 3 months babies can grab for objects
  • by 4months they can hold objects
  • 6 months can sit up
  • 7 months pull themselves up and hold onto furniture
  • 8-9 months walking by holding on
  • many take first steps before age of 1
  • by 17 months often can walk on their own
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25
Q

Grasping, sucking and rooting

A
  • grasping: if you give a newborn a finger they will grasp it tightly
  • rooting: open-mouth expecting to be breast fed
  • sucking: when you place something in a babies mouth
  • all involuntary responses to specific stimuli
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26
Q

Fine motor skill development

A
  • involve coordination of the actions of many smaller muscles
  • training in fine motor skills actually aids kindergarteners attention showing how joined cognition and action can be
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27
Q

Vision Development

A

-newborn vision is only about 20-600, meaning that infants can see an object that is 20feet away as I distinctly as an adult with normal vision would see an object 600feet away
-visual acuity improves during infancy, and by 6 months, vision is 20-100.
-by age 3 or 4 child’s vision is similar to adults
-newborns do not see colours very well and are best able to see black and white edges and patterns
-

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28
Q

Habituation-dishabituations

A
  • used to determine infant’s sensory abilities
  • detects whether the infant notices the difference between a familiar and novel stimulus
  • relies on fact that people prefer novelty and pay less attention (habituate) to a stimulus when it is repeatedly present
  • babies dishabituation to new stimulus tells the researcher that the baby can discern the difference between 2 photos for example
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29
Q

Preferential looking

A
  • another technique used to study infants’ preferences for certain visual stimuli
  • infant shown 2 stimuli and the researcher measures how long the infant spends gazing at each to determine which one it finds more pleasurable/interesting
  • babies prefer looking at complex objects rather than simple ones
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30
Q

Critical period

A
  • a period in which individuals are biologically most receptive to a particular kind of input from the environment
  • early months of childhood are critical period for vision
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31
Q

Visual cliff

A
  • experiment to test depth perception in babies who have learned how to crawl
  • create illusion of a cliff on the floor, and mothers try to encourage babies to crawl across it to see if they detect the “cliff” or not
  • mothers were able to convince 6 months old to wiggle across, but 10 month olds stopped when reaching the cliff
  • revealed that by the time they can crawl, babies can perceive depth
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32
Q

Synaptic pruning

A
  • synaptic connections that do not receive stimulation from the environment die off
  • natures way of making the brain more efficient
  • problems with neural pruning are associated with neurological disorders such as schizophrenia and autism
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33
Q

Neural development

A
  • at birth brain grows new neurons and we see a proliferation in the growth of new synapses over the first 2 years of life
  • after age 2 some die off
  • rate of change slows down considerably by age 6
  • increases again in early adolescence, then settles after
  • pruning has been seen in children pre-puberty
    • number of neurons (grey matter) declines in adolescence but white matter (axons and connectivity) continues to grow into our 40s
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34
Q

Musical training and the brain

A
  • shapes the structure of the brain
  • more somatosensory cortex devoted to body parts involved in musical training (ie. fingers of guitar player)
  • people who have had intensive training have thicker corpus callosum (greater communication between hemispheres)
  • larger cerebellums
  • musical training enhances neural activity in hippocampus which is associated with learning and memory
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35
Q

Brain plasticity in children

A
  • children’s brains are more plastic and more sensitive to stimulation
  • they have less myelin, which makes neural transmission more efficient but at a cost to neuroplasticity
  • few neurons are myelinated at birth
  • scientists have identified specific protein molecules within myelin that stop axons from sprouting and forming new connections
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36
Q

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development

A
  • when children encounter a new situation or even, they form a schema (mental representation)
  • schemas provide a framework for understanding our world - building blocks of cognitive development
  • when children encounter something new they first try to assimilate that experience into an already existing schema
  • accommodation occurs when a certain concept doesnt quite fit into an existing schemes and a new schema has to be formed to accommodate the new information
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37
Q

Sensorimotor stage (piaget’s theory)

A
  • 0-2 years
  • knowledge is though senses (tasting, seeing, smelling, touching, hearing)
  • object permanence develops between 4-9 months
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38
Q

Preoperational stage (piaget’s theory)

A
  • 2-5 years
  • verbal and egocentric thinking develop
  • can do mentally what once could only do physically
  • conservation of shape, number, liquid not possible yet
  • cognitive limitations include amniotic thinking, egocentrism and lack of conservation
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39
Q

Concrete operational (piaget’s theory)

A
  • 6-11 years
  • conservation of shape, number, liquid now possible
  • logic and reasoning develop, but are limited to appearance and what is concretely observed
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40
Q

Formal operational (piaget’s theory)

A
  • 12+
  • absrtact reasoning - principles and ideals develop
  • systematic problem solving is now possible (no longer just trial and error)
  • ability to think about and reflect upon one’s thinking (metacognition)
  • scientific reasonings
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41
Q

Object permanence

A

-ability to realize that objects still exist even when they are not being sensed

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42
Q

Animistic thinking

A

-idea that inanimate objects are alive

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43
Q

Egocentrism

A
  • tendency to view the world from one’s own perspective and not see things from another persons perspective
  • use three mountains task to demonstrate this
44
Q

Conservation

A
  • ability to recognize that when some properties (such as shape) of an object change, other properties (such as volume) remain constant
  • no apparent in pre-operational stage
  • quantity doesn’t change if it is rearranged
45
Q

Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development

A
  • emphasized how children learn through their social interactions
  • social interactions occur within a particular cultural context and help children internalize the cognitive ways of their culture, including speech patterns, written language, and mental processing
  • each child had a zone of proximal development
46
Q

Zone of proximal development (Vygotsky’s theory)

A
  • A range of tasks too difficult for the child to perform alone but possible with the help of adults and more skilled peers
  • eg. Learning how to play a game from someone older who knows how to play the game already. He gets less and less help until he knows all the rules
  • changing level of support is called scaffolding
  • gradually shift into child’s independent control
47
Q

Theory of mind

A
  • our knowledge and ideas of how other people’s minds work
  • children under the age of 4 are cognitively incapable of understanding that people may believe things that aren’t true
  • false-belief task to explore children’s theory of mind skills
48
Q

Temptation-resistance paradigm

A
  • create a lie-telling opportunity and then examine whether the children lie, and if it is a believably constructed lie or not
  • 64% lied about their peeking
  • children who demonstrated false-belief understanding were more likely to lie
  • young lie tellers had a hard time keeping their story straight
  • consistency between initial lie and subsequent responses was associated with higher level false-belief understanding in children 7years and older
  • findings are culturally universal
49
Q

Development of moral reasoning

A
  • as children develop cognitive, social skills, and theory of mind, they also develop sense of right and wrong
  • social and cognitive skills work together to help moral reasoning
50
Q

Heinz Dilemma

A
  • Kohlberg presented a moral dilemma and analyzed their responses
  • Kohlberg proposed a 3-stage theory of moral reasoning
  • found that moral reasoning moves from being focused on the self to being increasingly focused on others, which a basis in clear personal principles of morality and ethics
    1. pre-conventional level
    2. conventional level
    3. post-conventional level
51
Q

Pre-conventional level of reasoning (Kohlberg)

A
  • responses revolves around avoiding punishment or maximizing reward
  • children obey by rules because parents tell them to do so
52
Q

Conventional level of reasoning (Kohlberg)

A

-responses revolve around the person valuing caring, trust, and relationship as well as social order and lawfulness

53
Q

Post-conventional level of reasoning (Kohlberg)

A
  • the individual acknowledges both the norm and the law, but argues that there are universal moral rules that may trump unjust or immoral local rules
  • disobeying the more local rule may be necessary
  • principle of civil disobedience
  • individuals exhibit well-developed moral codes for which they are willing to sacrifice their lives to set right unjust and immoral laws and societies (Mahatma Gandhi, MLK Jr. etc)
54
Q

Moral reasoning across cultures

A
  • Kohlbergs model of reasoning applied universally for the first 2 stages
  • post-conventional is more limited to western cultures (strong sense of individualism)
  • many non-western cultures value group and community and so may more more likely to exhibit conventional reasoning
55
Q

Imprinting

A
  • animals follow and imitate the first large creature they see after birth
  • newborn sees this creature as a protector
  • humans dont imprint, they attach
56
Q

Attachment

A
  • strong emotional connection that develops early in life to keep infants close their caregivers
  • relationship shapes child social and emotional development and may form the foundation for social relationship later in life
57
Q

Separation anxiety

A
  • distressed reaction shown by babies when they are separated from their primary caregiver
  • typically shown around 9 months of ages
58
Q

Strange situation experiment

A
  • creates mildly stressful situations for infant to see how much the caregiver is a safe haven
  • baby is left alone to interact with a stranger, then when mother returns the response is analyzed.
  • 3 attachment styles were noticed:
    1. secure attachment
    2. insecure attachment
    3. disorganized attachment
59
Q

Attachment theory

A
  • based on 2 assumptions:
    1. A responsive and accessible caregiver must create a secure base for the child so the child can develop confidence and security exploring the work
    2. Infants internalize the bonding relationship, which provides a mental model on which they build future relationships. It is a bidirectional relationship - both respond to the other
60
Q

Secure attachment

A
  • infants show low to moderate distress when mother leaves but are happy and initiate contact when mother returns
  • return to play after being reunited
  • confident in accessibility and responsiveness of caregiver providing child with foundation for play and exploration
61
Q

Insecure attachment

A
  • lack ability to engage in effective play and exploration
  • 3 categories:
    1. anxious-avoidant attachment
    2. anxious-resistant attachment
    3. disorganized attachment
62
Q

Anxious-avoidant attachment

A
  • infant shows little to no distress in separation episodes, although physiological measures suggest that the infant is indeed under stress
  • when mother returns, infants tends to ignore and avoid her
  • avoidance reflects expectation that a bid for more contact would be followed with rejection
  • most common in western cultures
63
Q

Anxious-resistance attachment

A
  • infants are ambivalent
  • become upset when mother leaves
  • when mother returns they seek contact but reject attempts at being soothed
  • infants ambivalence may reflect lack of confidence in being comforted
  • 10-15% of infants are classified as this
64
Q

Disorganized attachment

A
  • infants show odd, confused behaviours in the strange situation
  • might approach mother upon reunion, but do so with head awkwardly averted, or may freeze in place
  • theory suggests infants are frightened
  • often with kids who have been maltreated
  • considered most insecure because the infants’ fear of their attachment figure inhibits the development of a strategy for effective stress regulation.
65
Q

Touch and comfort influencing development

A
  • preterm babies who were touched gained more weight and left hospital sooner than premies who weren’t touched
  • touch therapy also used to improve motor skills in children with cerebral palsy (movement disorder caused by brain damage at birth)
  • also helps autistic children with sensory, social, and basic living skills
  • improves well-being, motor dexterity, sleeping in kids with other disorders
66
Q

Temperament

A
  • the biological tendency to behave in specific ways from the beginning of life
  • 3 general categories:
    1. the easy child
    2. the difficult child
    3. the slow to warm up child
67
Q

The easy child temperament

A
  • predictable in daily functions
  • happy most of the time
  • adaptable
  • approx 40%
68
Q

Difficult child temperament

A
  • Unpredictable in daily functions
  • unhappy most of the time
  • slow to adapt to new situations
  • approx 10%
69
Q

Slow to warm up child temperament

A
  • mildly intense in his or her reactions to new situations
  • mildly irregular in family patterns
  • after repeated exposure they develop an approaching style
  • approx 15%
70
Q

Social referencing

A
  • ability to make use of social and emotional information from another person
  • babies also rely on prenatal vocal information such as changes in pitch and loudness for social referencing
71
Q

Emotional competence

A
  • ability to control emotions and know when it is appropriate to express them
  • starts as early as preschool
  • the better children do in school and the fewer stressful and dysfunctional situations they have at home, the more emotionally skilled and competent they become
  • by age of 9 kids learn the impact of their reactions on other peoples feelings
72
Q

Peers

A
  • by mid to late childhood, peers have the biggest influence

- share equal status in terms of age, gender, skill and power

73
Q

Gender identity

A
  • the degree to which they perceive themselves as male or female
  • babies as young as 3 or 4 display knowledge of gender
74
Q

Gender roles

A

-the behaviours, attitudes, and personality traits that are typically attributed to, expected from, or preferred in boys and girls

75
Q

Gender constancy

A
  • understanding that being male or female is a permanent part of a person
  • before 5-7 years old kids believe gender is something that can changes depending on superficial changes
76
Q

Adolescence

A
  • transition period between childhood and early adulthood

- beings at age 11 and ends around 18

77
Q

Puberty

A
  • period when sexual maturation begins, marking the beginning of adolescence
  • major hormonal changes prepare the body for reproduction
  • first pituitary glands send hormonal signals to the sex glands telling them to mature
  • sex glands then release sex hormones
78
Q

Menarche

A
  • next major change after breast development is the onset of menstruation
  • often occurs by age 12
  • marks beginning of fertility
79
Q

Secular trend

A

-onset of menstruation has dropped from the age of 16 to 12 since the 1600’s

80
Q

Spermarche

A

-event that signals readiness to reproduce
-first ejaculation
0usually unexpected and occurs as nocturnal emission (wet dream)

81
Q

Cognitive development of adolescence

A
  • abstract reasoning and logical thinking are linked with dramatic brain development
  • frontal lobes are last areas to fully develop
  • frontal lobes involved in planning, attention, working memory, abstract thought, and impulse control
  • onset of formal operational and scientific thinking occurs after frontal lobes have developed more fully

-growing in neural complexity (myelin and white matter)

82
Q

Changes in brain development through adolescence

A
  • develops more myelin around axons and more connections
  • myelination proceeds from back to front
  • neural synchrony (ability for certain types of brain waves to work together for coordination) increases
  • abnormal neural synchrony accounts for autism and schizophrenia.
  • synaptic pruning reaches final stages
83
Q

Cortical thickness and intelligence

A
  • in a study with mice, it was found that teen mice performed tasks much slower due to increased GABAnergic receptors in hippocampus which impairs learning
  • impaired hippocampus functioning may be responsible for risky behaviour
  • in teens, frontal lobes become overloaded during complex tasks
84
Q

Social development and brain development in adolescence

A
  • amygdala, temporal lobe, and medial prefrontal cortex are still developing (face interpretation, understanding of emotion, and theory of mind)
  • teens use slightly different areas of the brain to process certain emotions
  • teens more sensitive to rejection
85
Q

Erikson’s 8 stages of personality development

A

1: infancy. Hope, basic trust vs mistrust
2: early childhood. Will, autonomy vs. Shame and doubt
3: Play age. Purpose, initiative vs guilt
4: school age. Competence, industry vs inferiority
5: adolescence. Fidelity, identity vs identity confusion
6: young adult hood. Love, intimacy vs isolation
7: adulthood. Care, generativity vs stagnation
8: old age. Wisdom, integrity vs despair, disgust

-each shows a core strength and a crisis to resolve.

86
Q

Emerging adulthood

A

-phase between adolescence and young adulthood
-ages 1825
-

87
Q

State of emerging adulthood

A
  1. Identity exploration (who am i?)
  2. Instability (jobs, relationships, education)
  3. Self-focused (going through stage of living alone)
  4. Feeling in-between (between adolescence and adulthood)
  5. Age of possibility (anything possible for the future)
88
Q

Career identity

A
  • social support from family and friends appears important in facilitating a smooth transition from college to career
  • emerging adults perceive their first jobs more positively and report more satisfaction when they hold more realistic and well-informed expectations
89
Q

Sexual identity

A

-first age of sexual experience varies by culture, ethnicity, and education

90
Q

Ethnic identity

A
  • include: Canada’s First Nations, Asian Canadians, Hispanic Canadians, and African Canadian (in canada)
  • sense of belonging is important
  • individuals with stronger sense of self ethnic identity report higher levels of self esteem, are happier, and worry less
  • study shows that immigrants adapt better to their new country when they maintain their cultural heritage from their country of origin
91
Q

Young adulthood

A
  • usually early 20s, though certain life transitions represent more significant markers than age does
  • push people to become more engaged with the outside world
92
Q

Cardiovascular fitness and cognition

A
  • positive correlation between cardiovascular fitness and better cognitive scores
  • people who’s cardiovascular fitness improved from age 15-18 had higher intelligence than those who’s cardiovascular fitness had declined
93
Q

Marraige

A
  • average at which Canadians marry has increased from early 20s to mid 20s to early 30s
  • more people pursuing higher education
  • more people living together prior to marriage
94
Q

Parenthood

A
  • clear marker of adulthood
  • 15% never have children
  • shy men likely to have children later
  • shy women likely to have children earlier due to conventional personality
95
Q

Intimacy

A
  • ability to fuse one’s identity with another’s without the fear of losing it
  • hard to form intimate relationships without a secure sense of identity
96
Q

Middle adulthood

A
  • between 40-65 years old
  • challenges with sensory and physical development
  • some experience loss of vision/hearing
  • some experience loss of taste and smell
  • brain remains quite plastic and generative
  • continued learning aids neurogenesis/stress anxiety hinder it
  • core strength of adulthood is care (being committed to and caring for others etc)
97
Q

Generativity

A

Creation of new ideas, products, or people

-eg. Parenting, starting a business, or creating art

98
Q

Stagnation

A

-occurs when the adult becomes more self-focused than oriented toward others and does not contribute in a productive way to society or family

99
Q

Late adulthood

A

-begins around age 65

100
Q

Brain development and cognition in late adulthood

A
  • mass and brain size decrease
  • most normal cognitive decline results from frontal lobes (working memory, planning, abstract reasoning)
  • declines occur in processing info and maintaining information while making decisions
  • decline of fluid intelligence
  • strengthening of crystallized intelligence
  • exercising reduces cognitive decline
101
Q

Wisdom

A
  • one cognitive benefit of aging
  • ability to know what matters, to live well, and to show good judgement
  • comes with learning from situations
102
Q

Dementia

A
  • unusual loss in cognitive functions and includes memory problems and difficulty reasoning, solving problems, making decisions, and using language
  • strokes and Alzheimer’s can cause dementia
103
Q

Strokes

A
  • a stroke occurs when a blood vessel that serves the brain is blocked or ruptures
  • brain tissue served by that vessel doesn’t receive oxygen and nutrients and dies
  • may cause little or big cognitive impairments
104
Q

Alzheimer’s disease

A
  • degenerative disease marked by progressive cognitive decline and characterized by a collection of symptoms including: confusion, memory loss, mood swing, and eventual loss of physical function
  • accounts for 60-70% of dementia
  • early onset can affect people younger than 65
  • only diagnosed by examining brain tissue after death
  • anatomical feature is presence of patches of dead tissue in brain (especially hippocampus and cortex)
  • low levels of acetylcholine inhibit memory formation
105
Q

Personality development in late adulthood

A
  • conflict of old age is between integrity and despair
  • integrity: feeling of being whole and integrated
  • core strength is wisdom
  • research reveals that elderly adults who fail to accept the past with all its faults and missed opportunities are more susceptible to depression and anxiety
  • elderly adults who view the world as meaningful and manageable more easily accept their life experiences

PSYO 1022 (12 decks)

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