Issues and Debates

Question 1

Describe alpha bias in relation to gender bias

Answer 1

Overestimating the difference between the sexes - often devaluing women.
E.g. the sociobiological theory of relationship formation - relations with multiple people is abnormal in women

Question 2

Describe beta bias in relation to gender bias

Answer 2

Underestimating the difference between the sexes - not including women.
E.g. fight/flight response - ignores tend and befriend

Question 3

What is androcentrism in relation to gender bias?

Answer 3

When the male view is emphasised above all other views. Androcentric bias refers to when the male view is seen as the norm - deviation seen as inferior/abnormal. Is a result of beta bias

Question 4

State three advantages of research supporting the presence of gender bias

Answer 4

1. Male researchers more likely to have their work published, and research showing a gender difference is more likely published than that not showing a difference - institutional sexism
2. Many reported gender differences are based on the essentialist principle (difference is fixed and determined by nature) - in societies with more equality between men and women there’s much less of a psychological difference
3. Gender-biased research creates negative stereotypes for women - can be used to justify discrimination. E.g. 1930s research found intellectual activity would shrivel the ovaries and reduce conceiving capability

Question 5

State two disadvantages of research into gender bias (aims to reduce gender bias)

Answer 5

1. Many researchers are recognising the influence of personal views on research. Dambrin and Lambert - personal views affected perception when investigating lack of women in accountancy firms
2. Worell proposed criteria to avoid bias: 1) study women in meaningful life contexts 2) women genuinely participate 3) diversity in women instead of comparison to men 4) qualitative data

Question 6

Define cultural bias. How is this illustrated in psychology?

Answer 6

The judgement of a certain behaviour as standard from the standpoint of a certain culture, so all contrary behaviour is abnormal.
As of 1992, 64% of psychologists were American. Generally ignore culture as an important influencer

Question 7

Define ethnocentrism

Answer 7

Judging other cultures by the standards/values of one’s own culture e.g. Strange Situation

Question 8

Define cultural relativism

Answer 8

Findings only make sense from the perspective of the culture within the research was conducted - avoids cultural bias

Question 9

What is the etic approach? What is an imposed etic?

Answer 9

Looks at behaviour from OUTSIDE of a culture while attempting to identify universal behaviour to make conclusions about universal human behaviour
Imposed etic = research imposes ideology on another culture

Question 10

What is the emic approach?

Answer 10

Looks at behaviour from WITHIN a culture to understand culture-specific behaviour

Question 11

State three advantages supporting culture as a major influencer

Answer 11

1. Some mental illnesses only exist in some cultures e.g. Brain Fag in West Africa describes someone who has difficulty concentrating/thinking, Koro in China is when a man believes his penis is retracting into his body
2. African-Caribbean immigrants 7x more likely to be diagnosed with a mental illness
3. The general distinctions of individualistic and collectivist countries isn’t helpful or accurate - Takano and Osaka found 14/15 studies comparing US and Japan showed no evidence of the typical distinction

Question 12

State two disadvantages not supporting culture as a major influencer

Answer 12

1. Some behaviours are universal - e.g. basic human emotions for happiness and disgust, and interactional synchrony across different cultures
2. Cross-cultural research can help prevent cultural bias - acknowledges differences in cultures. Counters criticisms of scientific racism, and produces more valid data

Question 13

Define free will

Answer 13

The idea that humans are self-determining in thoughts and actions. Acknowledges the constraints of biological and societal forces but argues these can be overcome - HUMANIST APPROACH

Question 14

Define hard determinism

Answer 14

The belief that all behaviour has a cause, and everything is dictated by external factors that we can’t control

Question 15

Define biological determinism

Answer 15

Emphasises the influence of genetics and innate behaviour, while recognising the influence of the environment e.g. fight/flight, mental disorders - BIOLOGICAL APPROACH

Question 16

Define environmental determinism

Answer 16

Emphasises the influence of reinforcement and environmental events on behaviour, including the agents of socialisation (parents, teachers, institutions) - BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH

Question 17

Define psychic determinism

Answer 17

Emphasises the influence of biological drives and instincts - views behaviour as determined by unconscious conflicts repressed in childhood. Everything has a cause - PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH

Question 18

Define soft determinism

Answer 18

The belief that all behaviour has a cause, but people have conscious control over behaviour and can make rational choices - COGNITIVE APPROACH

Question 19

Evaluate the concept of free will

Answer 19

Advantages:

1. Face validity - everyday experiences give the impression of self-determinism, so it seems to be a correct explanation
2. Those with a high internal locus of control (believe they’re in control) are more mentally healthy - Roberts et al (2000) found teenagers with strong beliefs in determinism were at a higher risk of depression

Disadvantages:

1. Chun Siong Soon et al (2008) found brain imaging showed participants made a decision on pushing a button with their left or right hand 10 seconds before consciously reporting this decision
2. Mental disorders, such as schizophrenia, cast doubt on concept of free will - no one would choose to have it

Question 20

Evaluate the concept of determinism

Answer 20

Advantages:

1. Idea of determinism places psychology as consistent with the aims of a science - describes behaviour as orderly, rather than random
2. Predicting behaviour helps develop treatments and behavioural therapies

Disadvantages:
1. Unfalsifiable - not all causes of behaviour have the potential to be proved wrong

Question 21

Describe the nature side of the nature vs nurture debate

Answer 21

Behaviour is determined by innate influences, including any characteristic that is determined for by genes. Based on the principle that any characteristic that aids survival and reproduction is selected for (outcompete others) so is likely to be passed on. e.g. attachment is adaptive.
The higher the concordance rates, the more influential nature is

Question 22

Describe the nurture side of the nature vs nurture debate

Answer 22

Behaviour is determined by external influenes - social and physical influencers, as well as pre-natal influences.
Behaviourists would view behaviour as solely due to experiences e.g. cupboard love theory, double bind theory

Question 23

Evaluate the nature vs nurture debate

Answer 23

Disadvantages:

1. Interactionist Approach suggests both genetics and the environment are important - shouldn’t be separated. General heritability figure in IQ tests is 0.5, so both genetics and environment important
2. Diathesis Stress Model - nature triggered by nurture. Those with relatives with schizophrenia most likely to be concordant if they also had a dysfunctional adopted family (Finnish adoptees)
3. Nurture affects nature - Maguire et al (2000) london taxi drivers had a larger hippocampus
4. Epigenetics (third element to debate) - changes to genetic activity without changing genome due to lifestyle choices. Male mice given electric shocks to perfume, showed in offspring

Question 24

Define reductionism

Answer 24

Belief that human behaviour is best explained by breaking it down into smaller parts. The simplest explanation is the best one

Question 25

Define parsimony

Answer 25

Scientific assumption that complex phenomena should be explained by the simplest underlying principles

Question 26

What are the levels to explanation in reductionism?

Answer 26

Start at the highest level and progress downwards

1. Cultural and social - influence of social groups
2. Psychological - cognitive, behavioural influences
3. Biological - neurochemical, genetics and brain structure influences

Question 27

Define biological reductionism

Answer 27

Reduces all behaviour as due to the actions of neurones, hormones, neurotransmitters etc
Example: OCD and schizophrenia due to neurotransmitter imbalance

Question 28

Define environmental reductionism

Answer 28

Reduces all behaviour to a series of stimulus-response associations.
Example: attachment learnt due to association with food

Question 29

Define experimental reductionism

Answer 29

Reduces behaviour to operationalised variables that can be manipulated and measured to determine causal relationships - useful for research studies

Question 30

Define holism

Answer 30

Belief that human behaviour can be explained by looking at the whole system rather than individual parts

Question 31

State three examples of a holistic approach being utilised

Answer 31

1. Gestalt psychology - psychology movement that focuses on perception. States that when we perceive something we do so as a whole
2. Humanistic psychology - approach to study individuals as a whole and the interactions between people, uses qualitative methods
3. Cognitive psychology - recognises the links between brain networks as they work as a whole

Question 32

Evaluate the idea of reductionism

Answer 32

Advantage:

1. Led to development of drug therapies - recognising effect of biology
2. Scientific - argued that breaking down complex behaviour into smaller components allows for scientific testing

Disadvantages:

1. Only looking at biological explanations can ignore other factors - admin for Ritalin (medication for HD) ignores research showing family and emotional problems contribute to HD - lacks validity
2. True meaning may be overlooked - Wolpe treated woman with insect phobia with systematic desensitisation but it was found her phobia was due to marital difficulties
3. Experimental reductionism doesn’t reflect everyday life well - Loftus and Palmer’s results compared to Yuville and Cutshall’s

Question 33

Evaluate the idea of holism

Answer 33

Advantages:

1. Attempts to provide a complete and realistic understanding of human behaviour
2. Takes into consideration all factors that could influence behaviour, allows for better understanding -more valid than reductionism

Disadvantages:
1. Explanations don’t establish causation - don’t examine behaviour using operationalised variables, unscientific

Question 34

Describe the idiographic approach

Answer 34

Psychologists aim to study the individual, and gain an insight into behaviour from unique insights - emphasise unique personal experience of human nature. Findings are collected qualitatively through unstructured interviews, case studies and thematic analysis.

Question 35

Describe the nomothetic approach

Answer 35

Psychologists aim to study a large group in order to make generalisations and develop theories and general laws. Findings are collected quantitatively through measures of dispersion and central tendency, graphs and statistical analysis.

Question 36

State the approaches that follow a nomothetic approach

Answer 36

1. Biological
2. Behavioural
3. Social Learning Theory
4. Cognitive
5. Psychodynamic

Question 37

State the approaches that follow an idiographic approach

Answer 37

1. Humanist
2. Cognitive
3. Psychodynamic

Question 38

State three advantages of the idiographic approach

Answer 38

1. Focuses psychology back on the individual - humanist and qualitative psychologists criticise there as being too much emphasis on measurements. Allport stated that only by knowing a person as a person can behaviour be predicted
2. Case studies and thematic analysis are scientific and seek objectivity. Qualitative research uses reflexivity to identify the influences of behaviour - researcher reflects about the factors that affect the behaviour of both the participants and the researcher.
3. Allport argues it allows for general predictions to be made once enough data is gathered

Question 39

State three disadvantages of the idiographic approach

Answer 39

1. Not scientific - doesn’t supply enough evidence. Led to development of Positive Psychology as more evidence based - humanistic not sufficiently evidence based
2. Unable to produce general predictions - time-consuming to cater to each person
3. More time-consuming and expensive than nomothetic approach - collects large amount of data from one person, but a questionnaire would be generated quicker

Question 40

What is socially sensitive research?

Answer 40

Research that has potential social consequences for the participants or group that they represent

Question 41

What are the four aspects that should be considered before conducting research? (Sieber and Stanley 1988)

Answer 41

1. The Research Question - damaging to a certain group of people if results add credibility to prejudice
2. Conduct of Research/Treatment of participants - concerned with the maintenance of confidentiality
3. Institutional Context - should be mindful of how data may be used - private funding organisations may report research in a way that favours them, or media misreport
4. Interpretation and Application of Findings - findings may be used to different purpose to original intentions

Question 42

What are the 10 ethical issues that Sieber and Stanley suggested should be considered for socially sensitive research?

Answer 42

1. Privacy - may extract more information than pps intended to give, lead to social policies that invade personal lives
2. Confidentiality - need to maintain willingness of pps to give information
3. Valid Method - research may be invalid, but the media don’t represent this, so public aren’t aware
4. Deception - researcher may influence pps to believe untrue stereotypes that affect their performance
5. Informed Consent - pps may not fully understand the requirements of the research
6. Equitable Treatment - all pps treated in the same manner
7. Scientific Freedom - scientist free to conduct research but need to weigh this against their responsibilities
8. Ownership of Data - problems may arise over who owns the data - one may want to release data, other may want to re-analyse the data
9. Values - psychologists differ in approaches, could cause clash in research and recipient of research - don;t agree
10. Risk/Benefit Ratio - if risks outweigh benefits then it’s unethical, difficult to determine risks

Question 43

State two advantages of socially sensitive research

Answer 43

1. Has some benefit to society - allows important issues to be examined. Avoiding socially sensitive research would be avoiding responsibility to conduct research
2. Highlights importance of psychologists taking responsibility for their research and being aware of the possible misuses - awareness reduces likelihood of mishandled data

Question 44

State three disadvantages of socially sensitive research

Answer 44

1. Greater potential of an indirect impact on the group the pps represent - not sufficient to only protect immediate needs of pps
2. Many groups have been excluded from research or been misrepresented - leads to implication of a poorer understanding of human behaviour for all people e.g. disabled, elderly
3. Use of ethical guidelines to deal with ethical issues doesn’t sufficiently deal with all the ways research can harm a group of people - don’t consider how findings could be manipulated, should use 10 ethical issues described by Sieber and Stanley

Question 45

What are ethical implications?

Answer 45

Considers impact the research has on the rights of others in a wider context, not just the participants taking part. Implications may be good if the research provides to value to understanding e.g. Milgram, Zimbardo