Why are personality psychology and everyday human observation similar?
both seek to characterize people using similar kinds of terms
What are some considerations for the trait approach?
- almost all research within the trait approach relies on correlational designs
- it focuses exclusively on individual differences (trait measurements are made on ordinal rather than ratio scales)
- it is meaningful and useful to assess broad categories of individual differences
- personality traits affect life outcomes that matter to people
Why is there a certain inconsistency in relation to traits?
- personality traits are not the only factors that control an individual’s behaviour
- situations vary according to the people who are present and the implicit rules that apply
- people differ from each other in the degree to which they have developed a consistent personality
- this difference might be related to psychological adjustment as well as age
What are the three parts of the situationist argument?
- predictability = there is an upper limit to how well one can predict what a person will do based on any measurement of that person’s personality; this upper limit is a low upper limit
- the power of the situation = situations are more important than personality traits in determining behaviour
- erroneous perceptions = everyday intuitions about people are fundamentally flawed; people commit the fundamental attribution error
What is the situationist argument for predictability?
there is no trait that you can use to predict someone’s behaviour with enough accuracy to be useful
What is the personality response to the situationist argument for predictability?
- unfair literature review
- we can do better = the .40 upper limit is a result of poor or less than optimal research methodology
- a correlation of .40 is not small
Why is the 0.40 upper limit a result of poor research methodology?
- personality is more likely to be relevant in real situations
- some people are more consistent than others
- some behaviours might be more consistent than others
- should be a focus on general behavioural trends instead of single actions
What is an absolute standard?
how many correct and incorrect predictions of behaviour a trait measurement would yield in a hypothetical context
What is a relative standard?
compare the degree of predictability with the accuracy of other methods used to predict behaviour
What is the situationist argument for the power of the situation?
- data is collected from studies in experimental social psychology
- the concept of personality trait involves individual differences that are maintained across situations, not how much a behaviour is performed
- as the effect of the situation gets stronger, the effect of the person tends to get weaker
What is the situationist argument for erroneous perceptions?
the approximate - 18,000 trait terms in the English language came about because ideas about personality traits are important
- people are psychologically different, and it is important and interesting to note how
When are personality variables important, and when are situational variables important?
- situational variables are relevant to how people will act under specific circumstances
- personality traits are better for describing how people will act in general
What is interactionism?
- aspects of personality and of situations work together to determine behaviour; neither has an effect by itself, nor is one more important than the other
How do values relate to the person-situation debate?
- a situationist view implies that people are free to do whatever they want
- this implies that nothing we do is ever really our fault
- a personality view implies that an individual might be able to develop a consistent identity and personal style that allows them to transcend the moment
What are the methods to connect traits with behaviour?
- single-trait approach
- many-trait approach
- essential-trait approach
- typological approach
What are high self monitors?
- those who vary in their inner and outer selves and in how they perform in different settings
- carefully survey every situation looking for cues, and then adjust their behaviour accordingly
What are low self monitors?
- largely the same outside as they are inside, and do not vary much from one setting to another
- behaviour is guided by their inner personality
What is narcissism?
- excessive self-love
- seek to defend an unrealistically inflated self-concept
- in its normal range, it may have its pros and cons
- extremes can be considered a personality disorder
What is the California Q-set?
- list of 100 personality traits
- Q-set is a set of items
- Q-sort is the resulting arrangement
What does the many-trait approach say about word use?
- the use of words as implications for personality
- people who used a relatively large number of certainty words were described as intelligent, verbally fluent, ambitious, and generous
What does the many-trait approach say about depression?
- women may be at risk for depression when they are overcontrolled
- for young men, the risk factor is being undercontrolled
What does the many-trait approach say about political orientation?
- authoritarians = uncooperative, inflexible, obey authority, fewer positive emotions, stem from an attempt to lessen fears
- liberals = motivated by a desire for a wide range of gratifications soon
- could also be a result of parental outlook and genetics
What is the block theory?
- two essential characteristics of personality = ego resilience (psychological adjustment) and ego control (impulse control)
- high in ego-control = overcontrolled, inhibit their impulses
- low in ego-control = undercontrolled, more prone to immediately act on their impulses
- high in ego resilience = adjust their level of control from high to low and back again as circumstances warrant
What is Tellegan’s theory?
- updated Eysenck’s theory
- superfactors = positive emotionality, negative emotionality, constraint
What are the misgivings of trait approaches?
- the structure of personality traits across many individuals is not the same thing as the structure of personality as it resides within a person
- important differences between people are not just quantitative but qualitative
What are the Caspi types?
- well-adjusted = adaptable, flexible, resourceful, interpersonally successful
- maladjusted overcontrolling = too uptight for their own good, denying themselves pleasure needlessly, and being difficult to deal with at an interpersonal level
- maladjusted undercontrolling = too impulsive, prone to be involved in activities such as crime and unsafe sex, tend to wreak general havoc on other people and themselves
How does Eysenck describe personality?
- hierarchy of constructs
- acts = physical movements, individual cognitions
- habits = patterns of correlated acts
- traits = sets of intercorrelated habits
- factors = set of intercorrelated traits
How is Eysenck’s hierarchy organized?
- move from the most experiential to the most genetically determined aspects of personality
- habits and acts = influenced by learning
- traits and factors = influenced by genetics
- genes condition the learning that takes place
- the hierarchy develops top down
What are the PEN dimensions?
- extroversion - introversion
- neuroticism - stability
- psychoticism - ego control
How does Eysenck describe extroversion?
- characteristics = sociability, activity, assertiveness, sensation-seeking, dominance, venturesomeness, carefreeness
How does Eysenck describe neuroticism?
- characteristics = anxiousness, depression, low self-esteem, shyness, moodiness, tenseness, irrationality, emotionality
- orthogonal to the extroversion - introversion scale
How does Eysenck describe psychoticism?
- characteristics = aggressiveness, coldness, egocentricity, impulsivity, antisociality, unempathetic, tough-mindedness, creativity
How do the PEN dimensions relate to the four humours?
- sanguine = stable extrovert
- phlegmatic = stable introvert
- choleric = neurotic extrovert
- melancholic = neurotic introvert
What are Eysenck’s personality tests?
- Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI) = measures only extraversion and neuroticism, 57 questions
- Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) = measures all factors, 90 items
What is Eysenck’s explanation for extroversion-introversion?
- differences in the degree of cortical arousal
- Eysenck believed that this was genetically determined
- for optimal efficiency, we have to be at the right level of arousal
- the reticular activating system (RAS) sends nerve impulses to the cortex to arouse it
What is the biological basis for extroverts?
- cortex is chronically underaroused and needs more stimulation
- person seeks additional external stimulation
Characteristics
- excitation develops slowly and is weak
- reactive inhibition develops quickly and is strong
- somatic symptoms = physical ailments
- antisocial behaviours = harmful to others
What is the biological basis for introverts?
- cortex is chronically overaroused and needs less stimulation
- person reduces the number or intensity of external stimuli
Characteristics
- excitation develops quickly and is strong
- reactive inhibition develops slowly and is weak
- anxiety, phobias, obsessive compulsive disorder
What are the research findings for introverts and extroverts?
- introverts = faster pupillary contraction, slower dilation
- extroverts = require lower levels of sedation to reach sedation threshold
- introverts = prefer lower levels of stimulation when learning
- extroverts = higher pain tolerance than introverts
- introverts = learn more quickly, forget more slowly
What is Eysenck’s explanation for neuroticism - ego stability
- genetic difference in the arousability of the autonomic
- neurotic = low threshold for activation
- stable = high threshold for activation
What are the characteristics of a highly stable individual?
- need an event of considerable magnitude for the ANS to activate
- when they do respond, it is a small emotional response
What are the characteristics of a highly neurotic individual?
- a stimulus that sets off a small response in a highly stable individual will set off a large response in a neurotic individual
- experience frequent emotional responses that are stronger
- personality disorders (anxiety, depression) = learn relationship between stimuli and exhibit a high emotional response
What is Eysenck’s explanation for psychoticism - ego control?
- psychoticism is associated with high levels of testosterone
- psychoticism is associated with low levels of monoamine oxidase (MAO)
- MAO is found in synapses, and breaks down monoamine neurotransmitters, limiting activity in the nervous system
- MAO levels negatively correlated with impulsivity
- MAO levels negatively correlated with aggressiveness