GENDER

Question 1

What is sex?

Answer 1

Sex is a biological term which describes male/female distinctions as purely biological

chromosomal genotype (XX or XY), 
hormonal levels 
physical anatomy (genitalia)

Innate ‘nature’ cannot be changed over time

Question 2

What is gender?

Answer 2

Gender is a person’s psychological status identifying as feminine or masculine

attitudes/behaviours categorized as masc/fem traits rather than male-female biological divide.

Nurtured, so changed over time

Question 3

What are sex-role stereotypes?

Answer 3

Sex-role stereotypes

• sets of shared schemas for each gender
• expectations and beliefs about what is ‘acceptable’ behaviour for males and females in society.
• not biological, but nurtured.
• defined by society
• transmitted / reinforced by peers, parents and media
• damaging consequences - sexist assumptions that women should not be given high-powered jobs as they are ‘over-emotional’

Question 4

Outline androgyny.

Answer 4

Androgyny: possessing a high, balanced combination of masc and fem traits.

Bem suggested androgyny associated with positive psychological wellbeing because individuals w/both masculine and feminine characteristics are better adapted to wider range of contexts.

Question 5

Evaluate the concepts and theory behind androgyny

Answer 5

Bem suggested androgyny associated w/ positive psychological wellbeing because individuals w/ both masculine and feminine characteristics are better adapted to a wider range of contexts that demand masc/fem responses.

• androgyny may not always be positive as androgynous individuals may exhibit negative characteristics like overly-aggressive or too timid in certain situations.
• contradicted by Adams and Sherer, who suggested that people w/masculine traits better adjusted as they are more highly valued in Western society.
• concept is Western biased as only masculine traits are seen as positive.

Olds suggested androgynous individuals were at higher mental ‘stage of development’

• offered no explanation as to why ‘higher stage’ occurs in only some individuals.
• theory is incomplete.

Question 6

Outline the BSRI

Answer 6

Bem developed first systematic attempt at measuring androgyny using BEM SEX ROLE INVENTORY (BSRI)

• self-report questionnaire
• 60 traits (20 masculine ‘aggressive, competitive’, 20 feminine ‘caring, gentle’ and 20 neutral ‘friendly, happy’)
• Respondents rate selves on 7-point likert scale from ‘never to always true’
• masculine/feminine scores calculated and classified on basis of 2 dimensions ‘masculinity-femininity’ and ‘androgynous-undifferentiated’:
• high masculine / low feminine classifies as masculine
• high F / low M classifies as feminine
• high F / high M classifies as androgynous
• low F / low M classifies as undifferentiated.

Question 7

Outline measuring androgyny

Answer 7

Bem systematic attempt at measuring androgyny using the BEM SEX ROLE INVENTORY (BSRI)
- self-report questionnaire using 60 traits
20 masculine ‘aggressive, competitive’
20 feminine ‘caring, gentle’
20 neutral ‘friendly, happy’

Respondents rate themselves on a 7-point likert rating scale from ‘never to always true’ and masculine/feminine scores are calculated and classified on the basis of 2 dimensions ‘masculinity-femininity’ and ‘androgynous-undifferentiated’:

• high masculine / low feminine classifies as masculine
• high F / low M classifies as feminine
• high F / high M classifies as androgynous
• low F / low M classifies as undifferentiated.

Question 8

Evaluate BSRI

Answer 8

+ Bem suggested androgyny associated w/ positive psychological wellbeing bc individuals w/ both masculine and feminine characteristics better adapted to wider range of contexts that demand M/F responses.

• contradicted by Adams and Sherer, who suggested that people who display masculine traits better adjusted as more highly valued in Western society.
• weakness because it suggests Bem’s research didn’t take adequate account of social and cultural context in which it was developed.
• BSRI oversimplifies complex concept of ‘gender’ by reducing it to a single quantifiable score.
• criticised by Golombok - suggested GI is a global concept and in order to understand it, broader issues such as persons interests, perception of abilities and environment should be considered.
• suggests Bem’s research is a reductionist oversimplification of complex ‘gender’ which cannot be numerically reduced.
• culturally-relative and lacks temporal validity.
• BSRI developed by asking 50 male and 50 female American students to state traits they deemed desirable for each gender in 70s.
• Top 20 ranking traits used as rating scale.
• However, BSRI is historically biased.
• developed 40 years ago and typical gender behaviours have changed since 2nd wave feminism and LGBTQ movements, whereas scale is only stereotypical 70’s ideas of masc/fem qualities.
• C21 gender-bound ideas less distinct, for example, more women are in scientific jobs typically deemed ‘masculine’ because concepts of sex-roles have changed dramatically
• thus, BSRI has low temporal validity.
• culturally biased as ‘gender’ concept differs x-culturally
• limited validity as measure of masc/fem across cultures as diff traits are desirable cross-culturally eg. confidence
• only valid in 70s America.
• BSRI cannot be applied across cultures and time, thus lacks temporal validity.

+ seems reliable.

• 1,000 students piloted and found descriptions of GI + correlated with scale - people who believed they were feminine classified as feminine
• so high internal validity (measures what it intends to)
• same results when repeated same pps month later, demonstrating consistency + high test-retest reliability.
• scale subjective as people’s interpretation of own GI, qualities stated and each end of scale may differ.
• reduces internal validity.

Question 9

Outline role of testosterone

Answer 9

1. Testosterone produces male sexual, physical characteristics, causing development of male genitalia at 3 months old
2. Acts on sexually-dimorphic-nucleus in hypothalamus to alter its organisation to a ‘male’ pattern (larger than in females)
3. Testosterone has been linked to ‘masculine’ behavioural development of aggression and increased visuospatial abilities.
4. secondary surge under genetic control in adolescence produces secondary male characteristics e.g. pubic hair

Question 10

Outline the role of oestrogen.

Answer 10

1. female sex hormone produces female sexual, physical characteristics + governs menstruation and reproduction
2. Influences female behavioural development - increasing irritability/emotionality in PMS.

Question 11

Outline the role of oxytocin

Answer 11

1. ‘love hormone’ produced in pituitary gland reduces stress hormone cortisol + facilitates bonding in both sexes.
2. Women secrete more as oestrogen increases oxy. production
3. secreted during childbirth, causing uterus contraction and lactation, allowing breastfeeding to bond w/ infant.
4. linked behaviourally to increased sociability in women.

Question 12

OUTLINE THE ROLE OF CHROMOSOMES AND/OR HORMONES IN SEX AND GENDER DEVELOPMENT.

Answer 12

• Chromosomes affect gender development because genetics determine development of genitalia, thus, sex.
• Each person has 23 pairs homologous chromosomes
• 23rd pair = sex chromosomes determining bio sex.

• However, most biological aspects of gender development are governed by sex hormones: testosterone
oestrogen
oxytocin
- produced prenatally and in adolescence.

• influence genitalia and development of the brain, both of which influence gendered behaviour.
• act during embryonic development, but secondary surges of hormones in adolescence cause secondary sexual characteristics eg. pubic hair.

• Testosterone produces male sexual, physical characteristics, causing development of male genitalia at 3 months old.

• Oestrogen produces female sexual, physical characteristics and governs menstruation and reproduction.
It also influences behavioural development of females, increasing irritability/emotionality in PMS.

• Oxytocin is produced in the pituitary gland and called the ‘love’ hormone because it reduces stress hormone cortisol + facilitates bonding in both sexes

Role of hormones/chromosomes in gender development are most obvious in early embryonic development.

MALES:
1. Initially no structural differences between male and female embryos
2. The sperm that fertilizes the egg cell determines the sex of the infant because male sperm contains half Y chromosomes.
The offspring will be a:
- girl if fertilising sperm carries X chromosome
- boy if fertilising sperm carries Y chromosome.
3. Early in embryonic development, sex-determining gene on Y chromosomes (SRY) in males promotes testes formation
4. Testes release testosterone (male sex hormone).
5. Testosterone produces male sexual, physical characteristics, causing development of male sex organs at 3 months old
6. Increases size of sexually-dimorphic-nucleus in hypothalamus to alter its organisation to a ‘male’ pattern
7. Testosterone linked to ‘masculine’ behavioural development of aggression and increased visuospatial abilities.
8. In adolescence, second surge of testosterone under genetic control in boys produces secondary sexual characteristics and influences brain organisation in adolescence.

FEMALES:

1. Female XX embryos - absence of high levels of testosterone allows body and brain to develop in female pattern under genetic control.
2. Results in smaller SDN and development of female sex organs (ovaries)
3. Ovaries secrete oestrogen (female sex hormone) which increases oxytocin secretion.
4. Oxytocin released in bloodstream during labour and breastfeeding to allow bonding between mother/infant.

Question 13

Outline the role of chromosomes in gender development.

Answer 13

Role of hormones/chromosomes in gender development are most obvious in early embryonic development.

• Initially no structural differences between male and female embryos
• The sperm that fertilizes the egg cell determines the sex of the infant because male sperm contains half Y chromosomes.
• The offspring will be a:
• girl if fertilising sperm carries X chromosome
• boy if fertilising sperm carries Y chromosome.

FEMALES:

1. Female XX embryos - absence of high levels of testosterone allows body and brain to develop in female pattern under genetic control.
2. Results in smaller SDN and development of female sex organs (ovaries)
3. Ovaries secrete oestrogen (female sex hormone) which increases oxytocin secretion.
4. Oxytocin released in bloodstream during labour and breastfeeding to allow bonding between mother/infant

MALES:

1. Early in embryonic development, sex-determining gene on Y chromosomes (SRY) in males promotes testes formation
2. Testes release testosterone (male sex hormone).
3. Testosterone produces male sexual, physical characteristics, causing development of male sex organs at 3 months old
4. Increases size of sexually-dimorphic-nucleus in hypothalamus to alter its organisation to a ‘male’ pattern
5. Testosterone linked to ‘masculine’ behavioural development of aggression and increased visuospatial abilities.
6. In adolescence, second surge of testosterone under genetic control in boys produces secondary sexual characteristics and influences brain organisation in adolescence.

Question 14

Outline the role of hormones in gender development.

Answer 14

Role of hormones/chromosomes in gender development are most obvious in early embryonic development.

• most biological aspects of gender development are governed by sex hormones: testosterone
  oestrogen
  oxytocin
• produced prenatally and in adolescence.
• influence genitalia and development of the brain, both of which influence gendered behaviour.
• act during embryonic development, but secondary surges of hormones in adolescence cause secondary sexual characteristics eg. pubic hair.
• Testosterone produces male sexual, physical characteristics, causing development of male genitalia at 3 months old.
• Oestrogen produces female sexual, physical characteristics and governs menstruation and reproduction.
  It also influences behavioural development of females, increasing irritability/emotionality in PMS.
• Oxytocin is produced in the pituitary gland and called the ‘love’ hormone because it reduces stress hormone cortisol + facilitates bonding in both sexes

MALES:

1. Early in embryonic development, sex-determining gene on Y chromosomes (SRY) in males promotes testes formation
2. Testes release testosterone (male sex hormone).
3. Testosterone produces male sexual, physical characteristics, causing development of male sex organs at 3 months old
4. Increases size of sexually-dimorphic-nucleus in hypothalamus to alter its organisation to a ‘male’ pattern
5. Testosterone linked to ‘masculine’ behavioural development of aggression and increased visuospatial abilities.
6. In adolescence, second surge of testosterone under genetic control in boys produces secondary sexual characteristics and influences brain organisation in adolescence.

FEMALES:

1. Female XX embryos - absence of high levels of testosterone allows body and brain to develop in female pattern under genetic control.
2. Results in smaller SDN and development of female sex organs (ovaries)
3. Ovaries secrete oestrogen (female sex hormone) which increases oxytocin secretion.
4. Oxytocin released in bloodstream during labour and breastfeeding to allow bonding between mother/infant

Question 15

Evaluate the role of chromosomes/hormones in gender development.

Answer 15

• There is contradictory evidence suggesting that there is no link between testosterone and aggression.
  • Tricker conducted a double-blind study in which 43 males were administered a weekly injection of testosterone or a placebo.
  • No differences in aggression were found after the 10-week period.
  • Suggests sex hormones don’t affect gender related behaviour
  However, as his study only made use of a small sample of 43 males, it is unlikely to be representative of the wider male population and the small time period over which it was conducted may have produced atypical results than would be found over a longer, more realistic period.
  This data was therefore unrealistic and artificially produced, limiting the extent to which meaningful generalisations can be made.
  Therefore, the contradictory evidence lacks ecological validity.

+ There is evidence to support the role of hormones from the case study of David Reimer, a boy who was left without a penis after a circumcision ‘burning’ accident and was socialised as a girl to test Dr Money’s theory that gender was a social construct.
• However, David ‘Brenda’ never adjusted to life as a female and suffered severe psychological problems that triggered him to commit suicide in later life.
• This supports the influence of chromosomes as they determine biological sex.
• David was still biologically male, so the attempt to raise him as a female was unsuccessful perhaps due to the presence of the male XY chromosomes.
• Treating him as a girl appeared not to have affected his identity as male, or he would have remained in his female role, suggesting that biological influences are more important than socialisation.
• Moreover, this male chromosomal pattern causes increased testosterone levels.
• The behavioural ‘feminine’ changes to David’s behaviour could only be produced when he was given hormone replacement therapy, supporting the influence of hormones on gender identity.

• However, the belief that our biological sex determines gendered behaviour is biologically reductionist, ignoring other factors involved in gender development such as the wider influence of our society on gender development.
• Moreover, assuming someone will behave in a masculine way solely because of their Y chromosome is biologically deterministic, undermining the importance of hormones and environmental factors on behaviour.
• For example, the cognitive approach argues that changing thought processes underpin gender development, and the psychodynamic approach emphasises the effect of childhood experiences.
• Therefore, this theory is an oversimplification as it ignores other factors and individual experiences.

Question 16

Evaluate the role of chromosomes in gender development.

Answer 16

• There is contradictory evidence suggesting that there is no link between testosterone and aggression.
  • Tricker conducted a double-blind study in which 43 males were administered a weekly injection of testosterone or a placebo.
  • No differences in aggression were found after the 10-week period.
  • Suggests sex hormones don’t affect gender related behaviour
  However, as his study only made use of a small sample of 43 males, it is unlikely to be representative of the wider male population and the small time period over which it was conducted may have produced atypical results than would be found over a longer, more realistic period.
  This data was therefore unrealistic and artificially produced, limiting the extent to which meaningful generalisations can be made.
  Therefore, the contradictory evidence lacks ecological validity.

+ There is evidence to support the role of hormones from the case study of David Reimer, a boy who was left without a penis after a circumcision ‘burning’ accident and was socialised as a girl to test Dr Money’s theory that gender was a social construct.
• However, David ‘Brenda’ never adjusted to life as a female and suffered severe psychological problems that triggered him to commit suicide in later life.
• This supports the influence of chromosomes as they determine biological sex.
• David was still biologically male, so the attempt to raise him as a female was unsuccessful perhaps due to the presence of the male XY chromosomes.
• Treating him as a girl appeared not to have affected his identity as male, or he would have remained in his female role, suggesting that biological influences are more important than socialisation.
• Moreover, this male chromosomal pattern causes increased testosterone levels.
• The behavioural ‘feminine’ changes to David’s behaviour could only be produced when he was given hormone replacement therapy, supporting the influence of hormones on gender identity.

• However, the belief that our biological sex determines gendered behaviour is biologically reductionist, ignoring other factors involved in gender development such as the wider influence of our society on gender development.
• Moreover, assuming someone will behave in a masculine way solely because of their Y chromosome is biologically deterministic, undermining the importance of hormones and environmental factors on behaviour.
• For example, the cognitive approach argues that changing thought processes underpin gender development, and the psychodynamic approach emphasises the effect of childhood experiences.
• Therefore, this theory is an oversimplification as it ignores other factors and individual experiences

Question 17

Evaluate the role of hormones in gender development.

Answer 17

• There is contradictory evidence suggesting that there is no link between testosterone and aggression.
  • Tricker conducted a double-blind study in which 43 males were administered a weekly injection of testosterone or a placebo.
  • No differences in aggression after 10-week period.
  • Suggests sex hormones don’t affect gender behaviour
  However, as his study only made use of a small sample of 43 males, it is unlikely to be representative of wider male population
• small time period over which it was conducted may have produced atypical results than would be found over a longer, more realistic period.
• data was unrealistic and artificially produced, limiting extent to which meaningful generalisations can be made.
  Therefore, contradictory evidence lacks eco validity.

+ evidence to support role of hormones from case study of David Reimer, a boy left without a penis after circumcision ‘burning’ accident and socialised as a girl to test Dr Money’s theory that gender was a social construct
• However, David ‘Brenda’ never adjusted to life as a female and suffered severe psychological problems that triggered him to commit suicide in later life.
• This supports the influence of chromosomes as they determine biological sex.
• David was still biologically male, so the attempt to raise him as a female was unsuccessful perhaps due to the presence of the male XY chromosomes.
• Treating him as a girl appeared not to have affected his identity as male, or he would have remained in his female role, suggesting that biological influences are more important than socialisation.
• Moreover, this male chromosomal pattern causes increased testosterone levels.
• The behavioural ‘feminine’ changes to David’s behaviour could only be produced when he was given hormone replacement therapy, supporting influence of hormones on gender identity.

• However, belief that biological sex determines gender behaviour is biologically reductionist, ignoring other factors involved in gender development such as wider influence of our society.
• assuming someone will behave in a masculine way solely because of Y chromosome is biologically deterministic, undermining importance of environmental factors on behaviour.
• cognitive approach argues that changing thought processes underpin gender development, and psychodynamic approach emphasises childhood experiences.
• Therefore, theory is an oversimplification as it ignores other factors and individual experiences

Question 18

What is Klinefelter’s syndrome?

Answer 18

Klinefelter’s syndrome is a chromosomal disorder occurring in males with an extra X chromosome (XXY pattern).
• physical differences:
• extra height/long legs
• small testes / underdeveloped genitalia
• lacking facial hair
• breast growth
• Poor language abilities, learning difficulties
• It causes problems with reading and writing
• tendency to get upset/depressed easily
• passivity compared to other boys

Question 19

What is Turner’s syndrome?

Answer 19

Turner’s syndrome is a chromosomal disorder occurring in females with a missing X chromosome (XO pattern)
• It causes good language skills/reading
• physical effects:
• short stature
• poor breast development
• short neck
• later infertility due to under-developed ovaries.
• Poor spatial and mathematical abilities
• Poor social adjustment

Question 20

Outline the symptoms of KS?

Answer 20

physical differences:
• extra height/long legs
• small testes / underdeveloped genitalia
• lacking facial hair
• breast growth
• Poor language abilities, learning difficulties
• It causes problems with reading and writing
• tendency to get upset/depressed easily
• passivity compared to other boys

Question 21

Outline the symptoms of TS?

Answer 21

It causes good language skills/reading
•	physical effects: 
•	short stature
•	poor breast development
•	short neck
•	later infertility due to under-developed ovaries.
•	Poor spatial and mathematical abilities
•	Poor social adjustment

Question 22

Outline Kohlberg’s theory.

Answer 22

• Kohlberg’s theory is cognitive, relating to a child’s understanding of their own gender and how it creates gendered behaviour.
• Believes children actively structure their own experiences, rather than passive learning through observing and imitating (as proposed by SLT).
• Kohlberg believed that gender development occurred in 3 qualitatively different stages.
• Before a child can progress to the next stage there must be brain maturation to ensure that the brain is ready to move on to the next stage:

1. Gender identity – child becomes aware of their gender identity between ages 2-3 and can label others but don’t realise that gender is fixed eg. girls – women.
2. Stability – child understands that their (own) gender is fixed and unchangeable over time between ages 4-6
   However, they don’t understand that gender is fixed across situations and still rely on superficial external signs to classify gender - short hair = boy.
3. Constancy – gender is unchanged despite changes in outward appearance (clothing, hair etc) or changes in context/situations at age 7+. Only at this stage do children understand gender-appropriate behaviour by observing and imitating same sex models – this is referred to as ‘self- socialisation’ by Kohlberg and doesn’t depend on others

Question 23

Outline Kohlberg’s stages of gender development.

Answer 23

• Before a child can progress to the next stage there must be brain maturation to ensure that the brain is ready to move on to the next stage:

1. Gender identity – child becomes aware of their gender identity between ages 2-3 and can label others but don’t realise that gender is fixed eg. girls – women.
2. Stability – child understands that their (own) gender is fixed and unchangeable over time between ages 4-6
   However, they don’t understand that gender is fixed across situations and still rely on superficial external signs to classify gender - short hair = boy.
3. Constancy – gender is unchanged despite changes in outward appearance (clothing, hair etc) or changes in context/situations at age 7+. Only at this stage do children understand gender-appropriate behaviour by observing and imitating same sex models – this is referred to as ‘self- socialisation’ by Kohlberg and doesn’t depend on others

Question 24

Outline the stages involved in gender development according to Kohlberg.

Answer 24

1. Gender identity – child becomes aware of their gender identity between ages 2-3 and can label others but don’t realise that gender is fixed eg. girls – women.
2. Stability – child understands that their (own) gender is fixed and unchangeable over time between ages 4-6
   However, they don’t understand that gender is fixed across situations and still rely on superficial external signs to classify gender - short hair = boy.
3. Constancy – gender is unchanged despite changes in outward appearance (clothing, hair etc) or changes in context/situations at age 7+. Only at this stage do children understand gender-appropriate behaviour by observing and imitating same sex models – this is referred to as ‘self- socialisation’ by Kohlberg and doesn’t depend on others

Question 25

What is the first stage of GD according to Kohlberg?

Answer 25

1. Gender identity – child becomes aware of their gender identity between ages 2-3 and can label others but don’t realise that gender is fixed eg. girls – women.

Question 26

What is the second stage of GD according to Kohlberg?

Answer 26

2. Stability – child understands that their (own) gender is fixed and unchangeable over time between ages 4-6
   However, they don’t understand that gender is fixed across situations and still rely on superficial external signs to classify gender - short hair = boy.

Question 27

What is the third stage of GD according to Kohlberg?

Answer 27

3. Constancy – gender is unchanged despite changes in outward appearance (clothing, hair etc) or changes in context/situations at age 7+. Only at this stage do children understand gender-appropriate behaviour by observing and imitating same sex models – this is referred to as ‘self- socialisation’ by Kohlberg and doesn’t depend on others

Question 28

Evaluate Kohlberg’s GD theory.

Answer 28

 Kohlberg’s stages have been supported.
 Cross-cultural findings from Munro confirm that children go through all 3 of Kohlberg’s stages in the order he claimed.
 As the study was carried out across 6 different cultures (Western / Non-Western) the results are likely to be representative of the global population, giving Kohlberg’s theory higher ecological validity.
- Kohlberg underestimated the age gender identity occurred, as subsequent research has found that children actively seek same-sex playmates aged 3
- These findings are better explained by gender schema theory, which suggests that children begin to take on gender appropriate behaviours, and sex-role stereotypes as soon as they are aware of their gender identity - 3 is earlier than Kohlberg’s proposed gender identity stage – suggesting a flaw in his theory.
 Kohlberg’s theory is interactionist, including the roles of both nature and nurture – the process of brain maturation is biological ‘nature’ and nurture is involved through the process of self-socialisation.
 As a result, Kohlberg’s theory is holistic, and thus, less reductionist than other theories of gender development such as the gender schema theory, providing a valuable insight into gender.
- A further criticism of Kohlberg’s theory is that it is considered a good description of how gender develops in the 3 stages of identity, stability and constancy, but it does not explain how these stages actually occur.
- This limits the theory because it lacks depth as it cannot explain why boys show stronger sex-typing than girls, suggesting that there may be gender bias in this theory, as Kohlberg’s original research, which he used as a basis for his model, only studied development in males.
 Gender constancy was studied by Slaby and Frey, who found that older children with higher levels of gender constancy paid more attention to images of same-sex models than children with lower levels of gender constancy.
 suggests, as Kohlberg predicted, that increasing constancy leads children to pay more attention to gender-appropriate behaviour and that gender development is an active process.
This contrasts passive ‘imitation’ learning proposed by SLT
The simplicity of the study is a good way of assessing what children think without demand characteristics, so it has high internal validity. - The generalisation of his results to women is androcentric, judging females using male standards as ‘the norm’
This fails to account for the evident differences between development in both genders as girls are generally more willing to do masculine activities than boys are to do feminine activities

Question 29

Outline gender schema theory.

Answer 29

• Gender schemas are collections of preconceived ideas and expectations about each gender developed early in childhood from experience
• They guide children’s understanding of appropriate gender behaviour by acting as mental ‘shortcuts’ to organise information.
• Shares Kohlberg’s view that children develop understanding of gender by actively structuring their learning rather than passively observing and imitating role models (SLT)
• Martin and Halverson proposed the gender schema theory to explain gender development:
1. Development of gender identity (boy or girl) at about age 2-3 involves the formation of gender schemas
Children ignore information that does not fit their developing schema - toys, for instance, become categorised as belonging to boys or girls
2. After this stage at age 4 children seek out behaviours appropriate for their own gender
3. Gender schemas lead to formation of ingroup and outgroup schemas
4. Children’s in-group gender schema becomes more detailed and elaborate over time as they pay more attention to the schemas relevant to their own gender identity
5. Form rigid gender-stereotypes at around age 6 and disregard information that doesn’t fit existing schemas
6. At 8, they develop a more detailed, elaborate schema of opposite gender ‘out-group’

Question 30

Evaluate schema theory.

Answer 30

 Martin and Halverson’s study found that children under the age of 6 were more likely to correctly recall photographs of gender-consistent behaviour than gender-inconsistent behaviour eg. man feeding baby
 Supports theory as it demonstrates that children disregard information that is inconsistent with their existing gender schema for ‘acceptable’ gendered behaviour
 Contradicts Kohlberg but supports gender-schema theory as it accounts for the fact that young children show rigid gender stereotypes before stability due to schema dev. - Cannot draw causal conclusions from Martin and Halverson’s research, as although findings are consistent with the theory, their conclusion that rigid gender-stereotypes are due to schemas developed from a young age may be invalid as they did not adequately control extraneous variables such as the effect of biological factors on the performance of specific gendered-behaviour.
- This reduces reliability and internal validity of the findings as they aimed to investigate whether gender-schemas distorted recall of gender information that did not typically fit their schema.
- Due to the influence of possible extraneous variables, Martin and Halverson did not measure what they intended to.
 Schema theory suggests that children seek to acquire information about their own gender before constancy aged 2-3, unlike Kohlberg’s suggestion that they only seek information after they have progressed through all 3 stages of development: identity, stability and constancy aged 7 - However, there are cultural biases in schema development cross-culturally as schemas are developed through interactions with other children, adults, and the media. A child develops a gender schema appropriate to their cultural ‘norms’, so schemas vary from culture to culture.
 Whilst gender schema theory emphasises the importance of parents and peers in the formation and maintenance of schemas, biological approach emphasises genetic unchangeable nature of gender development.
 There is evidence for both arguments, which is why the biosocial approach to gender development is popular as it is less reductionist, suggesting gender behaviour is influenced by both biology+environment
 This could have positive real-life applications to the reduction of sex role stereotyping from parents and society by emphasising that they are influential in maintaining these schemas. - However, as gender schema theory emphasises role of social and cognitive factors in schema development, it falls wholly on the nurture side of the nature/nurture debate with no clear role for genetic factors in the origin or development of schemas
- evidence to support the role of hormones from the case study of David Reimer, a boy who was left without a penis after a circumcision ‘burning’ accident and was socialised as a girl to test Dr Money’s theory that gender was a social construct.
- However, David never adjusted to life as a female and suffered severe psychological problems that triggered him to commit suicide in later life.
- This supports influence of chromosomes as they determine biological sex.
- David was still biologically male, so the attempt to raise him as a female was unsuccessful perhaps due to the presence of the male XY chromosomes.
- Treating him as a girl did not affect his male identity, or he would have remained ‘female’, suggesting biological influences are more important than socialisation, challenging the theory.
- Thus, gender-schema theory may over-emphasise role of cognitions, leading to limited understanding of gender, particularly as evidence suggests genetics influence gender development.