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PSY 306 - Cognitive Psychology > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Models of Attention:

What is attention?

A

o Limiting; paying attention to one thing and not others
o Critical for conscious awareness
o Goal is to focus on what’s most important (enhance some things and inhibit others)

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2
Q

Models of Attention:

Describe the Early Selection Model. Who proposed this model?

A
  • Broadbent
  • attention selects before identification
  • encoding (followed by gate) then identification, response selection, response execution
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3
Q

Models of Attention:

Describe Broadbent’s dichotic listening experiment that provided evidence for the Early Selection Model

A
  • dichotic listening - 2 diff inputs, one through each ear
  • story in one ear, words in other - subjects had to repeat words
  • had difficulty answering question about the ear they were ignoring but could answer very basic questions (like was its a tone/noise, pitch of voice)
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4
Q

Models of Attention:

Describe the Late Selection Model. What researchers proposed it?

A
  • Deutsch and Deutsch
  • attention selects after identification
  • encoding, identification, (gate), response selection, response execution
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5
Q

Models of Attention:

Describe the “Flanker Task” used by Deutsch and Deutsch to prove the Late Selection model

A
  • one target letter, and distracter on either side
  • identify target letter and hit corresponding button
  • incongruent - flankers match other response, not target
  • congruent - flankers match target
  • neutral - flankers diff from target
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6
Q

Models of Attention:

Describe the Attenuation Theory. Who proposed it?

A
  • proposed by Treisman
  • Attention does select early but the filter isn’t strong
  • what you inhibit can come through in a weakened state
  • ex. in conversation with someone but hear name called far away
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7
Q

Models of Attention:

Describe the Load Theory. Who proposed it?

A
  • Lavie
  • cognitive load: how much stuff you’re dealing with
  • default is to process everything
  • low load: process everything; late selection
  • high load: selective (early selection)
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8
Q

Endogenous & Exogenous Attention:

How does attention shift in regards to exogenous attention?

A
  • exogenous attention: reflexive attention shift; something in environment
  • overt: eyes’ gaze shift
  • covert: eyes/head stay fixed
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9
Q

Endogenous & Exogenous Attention:

How does attention shift in regards to endogenous attention?

A
  • voluntary attention shift
  • choose to focus attention
  • overt: eyes and head shift
  • covert: eyes fixed
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10
Q

Endogenous & Exogenous Attention:

What is the Posner cuing paradigm? Explain its method

A
  • measures shift in attention
  • stay focused on center point
  • boxes/placeholders where target may appear
  • cue appears in either box; indicate where target might occur
  • directional cue thought to elicit endogenous shift
  • flash cue to elicit exogenous attention shift
  • “valid” trial - target appears where cue was
  • “invalid” - other location
  • response time varies on whether valid or invalid trial
  • valid RT fastest
  • if attention already shifted where target shows up you can start identifying more quickly (takes longer to shift attention and identify in invalid trial)
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11
Q

Endogenous & Exogenous Attention:

How do Kingstone et al. challenge the distinction between reflexive vs voluntary attention shifts?

A
  • used method involving looking at picture of eye gaze
  • eye gaze as central cue and can cause shift depending on direction eyes are gazing
  • found that central eyes trigger exogenous shifts (even though they shouldn’t according to previous studies)
  • eyes elicit exogenous attention shifts bc they have social significance
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12
Q

Controlled and Automatic Processing:

What is the difference between controlled and automatic processing?

A
  • Automatic processing: no attention required

- Controlled processing: requires executive functions and control

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13
Q

Controlled and Automatic Processing:
What cognitive abilities are considered “executive control?” What part of the brain is associated with executive control?

A
  • manipulating info, complex processes like planning, control
  • prefrontal cortex, specifically dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
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14
Q

Controlled and Automatic Processing:

How is the Stroop Task an example of the difference between controlled and automatic processing?

A
  • colored words task
  • SAY color of font, NOT the word which is name of a color
  • difficult task bc reading is automatic for simple words
  • have to control impulse to read the word and instead read ink color
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15
Q

Controlled and Automatic Processing:

How did the Payne study contrast controlled and automatic processing?

A
  • looked at how implicit racial biases contribute to automatic/controlled processes
  • subjects had to identify object as gun or tool; target object preceded by face of white or black male flashed
  • exp. 1 no time limit - RT faster when pairing face of black male with gun, result low error rate, time to override automatic processing with controlled processing
  • exp 2: time limit, higher error rate, automatic processing (no time to override), more willing to respond w/ automatic processing bc of time limit
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16
Q

Selective and Divided Attention:

What is the difference between selective and divided attention?

A
  • Selective attention: focuses on some things; location or object
  • Divided attention: ability to split attention across different stimuli or locations ; attention shifts between multiple tasks; limited in how it can be divided
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17
Q

Selective and Divided Attention:

Is attention capable of being divided (true multi-tasking)?

A
  • Attention shifts between multiple tasks

- however can perform two tasks at the same type if they use separate functions and have no interference

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18
Q

Selective and Divided Attention:

What sort of shift costs result from alternating tasks?

A
  • shift-cost- takes longer to do tasks simultaneously than if did them on their own; shifting attention between tasks adds up
  • mixing cost: having 2 different task sets loaded; also makes you perform task more slowly
  • shift cost can be reduced with warning person so they can prepare and plan
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19
Q

Attention Failures and Deficits:

What is inattentional blindness? Describe the experiment that tested it

A
  • people paying attention to certain stimuli ignore/don’t see other stimuli
  • Simon and Chabris study
  • basic shapes - count how many times shapes bounce off side of screen, occasionally a shape passes through the middle and people don’t see this
  • focus on some stimuli and inhibit other stimuli - other stimuli doesn’t reach level of identification
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20
Q

Attention Failures and Deficits:

What is change blindness?

A
  • don’t see a change, especially if quick
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21
Q

Attention Failures and Deficits:

Describe the Flicker Paradigm change blindness example

A
  • something changers between two images (blank screen in between, “flicker”)
  • attention lookds at each item and asks “is this what’s changing?”
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22
Q

Attention Failures and Deficits:

Describe the Mudsplats change blindness example

A
  • put up “visual noise” or “mask”

- disruptive enough to make it more difficult to see the change

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23
Q

Attention Failures and Deficits:

Describe the Gradual Changes change blindness example

A
  • program gradually changes from one image to other image (ex. an object fades from image)
  • usually more difficult to find difference
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24
Q

Attention Failures and Deficits:

Describe the Color-Changing Card Trick and “Door” Study change blindness examples

A
  • Cards: several aspects of environment changed but focused on cards and don’t notice changes
  • door: someone giving directions; door comes by and person needing directions switches; 50% of participants didn’t notice the change; focused on giving directions
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25
Q

Attention Failures and Deficits:

What is the attentional blink? Describe the RSVP method used to study it

A
  • attentional blink: presented with lots of info very quickly; attention limited in capacity
  • RSVP: Rapid Serial Visual Presentation
  • presents stimuli quicjkly one at a time(ex. numbers and target were letters mixed in)
  • accuracy at identifying 2nd target good if follows first target
  • worse if short distance from target
  • gets better with more distance between targets
  • why: try to identify first letter but when presented with number tries to hang onto first target; decays before have chance to identify second target
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26
Q

Attention Failures and Deficits:

What is attentional control?

A
  • ability to control attention

- can reduce impact of distracters

27
Q

Attention Failures and Deficits:

What is sustained attention?

A
  • can focus on something of interest

- not limitless

28
Q

Attention Failures and Deficits:

How is attentional control impacted in individuals with ADD? Describe the two studies

A
  • Li, Lin, Chang, Hung (2004)
  • attentional blink method
  • ADHD ind. - attention gate closes more slowly, allowing more info in initially; and takes longer for the gate to open up again
29
Q

Attention Failures and Deficits:

Which type of attention is impacted by ADD or ADHD?

A
  • selective attention

- also less attentional control

30
Q

Attention Applications:

What are some factors that can make it difficult to study for tests?

A
  • should limit distractions while studying; can produce mixture costs
31
Q

Attention Applications:

What are challenges facing baggage screeners than can make it difficult to find weapons?

A
  • cluttered images
  • objects at differnt/odd angles so don’t look like real life objects
  • used to seeing certain items (ex.water bottles) not sued to seeing explosives
32
Q

What are the challenges facing lifeguards that can make it difficult to find people who are drowning?

A
  • disagreement on what is important to look at and how severe things are
33
Q

Attention Applications:

What did Strayer et al’s study reveal about cell phone conversations while driving?

A
  • talking on phone pulls attention from road
  • exp. 1: people on phone took longer to press brake, longer to let go of it, longer to reach min. speed, also increased following distance
  • exp 2: people on phone had less memory of billboards passed while driving
  • exp: 4 took longer to identify words if on cell phone
34
Q

Memory Models & Stages:

Describe the Atkinson-Shiffrin Model (Multi-Store Memory)

A
  • SENSORY MEMORY: hangs onto info breifly to determine if relevant, if yes then pay ATTENTION and transfer to short-term
  • SHORT-TERM (info may get TRANSFERred into long-term)
  • LONG-TERM: retrieval processes an bring this info back into STM to enable response output
35
Q

Memory Models & Stages:

What is the capacity and duration of short-term memory?

A
  • duration: less than 30 sec

- capacity: 7 plus or minus 2 items

36
Q

Memory Models & Stages:

What is the duration and capacity of long-term memory?

A
  • duration: potentially lifelong

- capacity: potentially infinite

37
Q

Memory Models & Stages:

Describe the Baddeley & Hitch Model

A
  • 2 stores & 1 central executive in between them
  • visuospatial sketchpad: focuses on spatial and visual info
  • phonological loop: focuses on sound info
  • central executive: determines what gets put into working memory, which store gets the info, can integrate info involving both sound and visual/spatial, manipulation
38
Q

Memory Models & Stages:

How is the Baddeley and Hitch Model different from the Attkinson and Shiffrin Model?

A
  • STM is “working memory” - not passive store; allows you to compare, manipulate info
  • central executive
39
Q

Memory Models & Stages:

What evidence do Baddeley and Hitch provide for the visuospatial sketchpad?

A
  • “corners of the F” task
  • imagine walking along F, asked what direction/turn next corner is (Spatial)
  • can respond with words or with spatial task
  • spatial response impaired bc also uses visuospatial sketchpad
  • interference when using the same system
40
Q

Memory Models and Stages: What evidence do Baddeley and Hitch provide for the Central Executive?

A
  • Alzheimer’s and non-Alzheimer’s subjects
  • primary spatial task
  • secondary task may be neither verbal or spatial, verbal, memory
  • overall Alzheimer’s patients performed more poorly
  • evidence that frontal lobe may contain central executive functions
41
Q

Memory Models & Stages:

Describe the 4 effects of the phonological loop

A
  • phonological similarity effect: difficulty keeping similar sounding letters in memory
  • irrelevant speech effect: listening to verbal info while hearing speech causes interference in storing verbal info
  • word-length effect: can remember 4.5 single syllable words, 2.6 more syllables; rehearsal process (“saying” it in memory takes longer with longer words)
  • articulatory suppression: keep verbal info in memory while saying something different interferes with storing verbal info
42
Q

Memory Types & Processes:

What are declarative memories? What are the types of declarative memories?

A
  • declarative/explicit: can consciously report them, can freely retrieve
  • episodic: memories of things that happened to you
  • semantic: memories of knowledge and info
43
Q

Memory Types & Processes:

What are nondeclarative memories? What type of memory is nondeclarative?

A
  • nondeclarative/implicit: don’t have ready for conscious retrieval
  • procedural: memories of skills
44
Q

Memory Types & Processes:

What is encoding?

A
  • creating a memory

- important structures involved are hippocampus and prefrontal cortex

45
Q

Memory Types & Processes:

Who was H.M? What abilities were affected and what were intact?

A
  • suffered head injury from bike, had severe seizures originating near hippocampus
  • part of hippocampus removed
  • short-term memory intact
  • long-term memories from before surgery intact (they aren’t stored in hippocampus)
  • intact non-declarative
  • couldn’t make new episodic memories
46
Q

Memory Types & Processes:

What is consolidation?

A
  • strengthening memories

- memories stored throughout brain

47
Q

Memory Types & Processes:

What is retrieval? How does it occur?

A
  • accessing a memory

- retrieval cues: aspects of the memory that helps access it (ex. certain scent)

48
Q

Memory Types & Processes:

What makes memories stronger?

A
  • attention
  • elaboration of meaning (processing things deeply, making connections)
  • generation efffect: force self to actively retrieve the info
  • spacing effect: space studying to have more opportunities to retrieve it
  • state-dependent: recall in similar phys.,psy, emotional state as when memory was made
49
Q

Memory Types & Processes:
What is state-dependent memory? Describe the evidence Godden & Baddeley found in their experiment. Also Teasdale and Russell’s experiment.

A
  • psychological, physical, emotional state when trying to retrieve the memory matches when memory was made
  • Godden & Baddeley: free-recall words in same environment (wet or dry) better
  • Teasdale and Russell: mood-dependent, recalled more words which matched state (ex. neg words with depressed state)
50
Q

Memory Types & Processes:

What is forgetting?

A
  • no longer able to recall a memory which had been previously encoded
51
Q

Memory Types & Processes:

What is the difference between decay and interference?

A
  • decay: broken down

- interference: something preventing you from accessing at the time

52
Q

Memory Types & Processes:

What is the difference between proactive and retroactive interference?

A
  • proactive: old info interfering with storing new info; forward in time
  • retroactive: backward in time; new info interfering with recalling old info
53
Q

Memory Errors:

What effect does misattribution have on memory?

A
  • attribute info to wrong source
54
Q

Memory Errors:

What effect do inferences have on memory? What did Sulin and Dooling find regarding this?

A
  • inferences drawn when experiencing the event
  • Sulin and Dooling: paragraph about a girl, one group had paragraph with name Helen Keller, subjects formed false memory that paragraph contained the words “deaf” and “blind”
55
Q

Memory Errors:

What effect does suggestion have on memory?

A
  • info presented after experience can impact how it’s remembered
56
Q

Memory Errors:

Describe Loftus and Palmer’s experiment

A
  • car crash judgments
  • content of verb presented in question influenced speed estimates (“smashed” elicited higher speed estimates)
  • exp. 2 false memories of broken glass more likely to be formed if verb smashed was used
57
Q

Memory Errors:

What are flashbulb memories? What makes them special?

A
  • typically formed after traumatic events
  • incredibly vivid, like reliving experience and feel very true
  • adrenaline can help people remember things better
58
Q

Memory Errors:
Are flashbulb memories accurate? Describe McCloskey et al.’s findings regarding flashbulb memories and the Challenger explosion.

A
  • some aspects of the memory can change
  • like how you found out
  • who you were with
  • findings -only 7% of participants had same memory three years apart
59
Q

Memory Applications:

What factors that influence memory strength are beneficial for studying?

A
  • generation effect
  • spacing effect
  • active listening
  • don’t spend too long on one subject
60
Q

Memory Applications:

What factors influence eyewitness testimony?

A
  • amount of time that has passed since event occurred
  • exposure to information after the event may alter memory
  • cross-race identification
  • leading questions that suggest a certain answer
61
Q

Memory Applications: What was the repressed memory debate?

A
  • 1990s Freudian therapists were using leading questions and hypnosis on patients
  • therapists suggested that the patients had experienced some form of sexual abuse in childhood
  • hypnosis increases suggestibility and potential to form false memories
  • many patients did “recover” memories of past abuse, but did these actually happen or were these false memories
62
Q

Memory Applications:

Describe the problems with the eyewitness account in the Lockerbie bombing case

A
  • passenger plane bombed over Scotland, police recovered suitcase which had pajamas
  • 9 months passed between the event and when shopkeeper was questioned
  • shopkeeper’s details were conflicting/inconsistent in different interviews
  • he had seen the suspect’s face on poster, could have changed his memory
  • cross-racial identification can be a factor
  • possible miscarriage of justice with this case
63
Q

Memory Applications:

Describe the Fells Acres Daycare case

A
  • arrest and conviction of man, sister and mother
  • conviction based on testimony of children
  • child reported 3 months late that he had been inappropriately touched (he had wet his pants and been changed)
  • issues with child testimonies:
  • amount of time
  • suggestibility
  • social influences
  • repeated questions
  • use of dolls
  • understandability of questions

PSY 306 - Cognitive Psychology (5 decks)

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