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PSY 306 - Cognitive Psychology > Exam 4 > Flashcards

Exam 4 Flashcards

1
Q

Language Structure:

What is grammar?

A
  • rules, the structure that governs language
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2
Q

Language Structure:

What is syntax?

A
  • organization of a sentence
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3
Q

Language Structure:

What are semantics?

A
  • the meaning of a sentence
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4
Q

Language Structure:

What is phonology?

A
  • the sounds of a language
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5
Q

Language Structure:

What is orthography?

A
  • the letters or script of a language
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6
Q

Language Development:

What is language acquisition? Where does it begin?

A
  • learn language
  • ## begins in the womb (ears start functioning and can hear sound patterns)
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7
Q

Language Development:

Describe DeCasper and Spence’s study

A
  • pregnant women read to unborn child
  • babies could chose to hear same story read by mother or a different story (chose based on rate of sucking pacifier)
  • indicates babies knew difference between one story and another - so language learning even in babies
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8
Q

Language Development:

What is the critical period hypothesis? What evidence supports it?

A
  • certain skills have to be learned at a certain point in time or they cannot be learned at all
  • critical period for language development is puberty
  • evidence: Genie - never taught language and at 13yrs could learn words but couldn’t put them together to form a sentence
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9
Q

Language Development:

What is Chomsky’s Language Acquisition Device? How does it work?

A
  • when exposed to language in the environment the “settings” for the particular language are keyed in
  • we are equipped to learn language
  • existing structure; we are also born with cog. concept of universal grammar
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10
Q

Language Development:

Describe Saffran et al’s study and their findings

A
  • babies able to learn statistical patterns of sounds (esp. transitional probabilities which are likelihood of a particular sound following another sound)
  • exposed to made up language (“bidaku, padoti, golabu, tupiro)”
  • chose between hearing word or non-word: preferred nonword
  • second exp chose between word and part-word: showed they understood where one word ends and next begins
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11
Q

Comparative Language:

What are four properties of human language that distinguish it from the communication patterns of other species?

A
  • duality of patterning: units of meaning (words) are made up of units which are meaningless on their own (letters)
  • arbitrary: words are arbitrary and are assigned meaning
  • generative capacity: we can create new words whenever we want to
  • recursion: take a sentence/thought & embed into another sentence (“nesting” ideas)
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12
Q

Comparative Language:

What have studies on animals indicated about animals’ ability to learn and use human language?

A
  • Koko the gorilla: learned sign language but didn’t make grammatically correct sentences
  • Kanzi the bonobo: understood what symbols meant
  • show the animals can understand some human lang (at toddler level) but can’t further
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13
Q

Language Comprehension:

What is language comprehension?

A
  • how we’re able to understand language

- know what spoken words mean and what words on a page mean

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14
Q

Language Comprehension:

What is the Wernicke’s area? What is Wernicke’s aphasia and its symptoms?

A
  • left hem, temporal lobe
  • area involved in lang comprehension
  • Wernicke’s aphasia: “word salad” in which words come out but lack meaning, may also have difficulty understanding questions
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15
Q

Language Comprehension:

What is parsing?

A
  • break input down into component words

- comprehension starts at word level

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16
Q

Language Comprehension:

What did Just and Carpenter (1980) find regarding word fixation? What do their findings tells us about word processing?

A
  • measured how long eyes stayed on certain words
  • longer on meaningful, unfamiliar, and first words
  • also longer for words that take longer to say/read
  • we don’t look at every single word but most of them, we may jump ahead but may need to backtrack
  • how eye processes words while reading
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17
Q

Language Comprehension:

How are similar-sounding words stored in memory? What is neighborhood density?

A
  • stored in same areas of memory
  • “neighborhoods” are stores of sim. sounding words
  • dense neighborhood has many words, so interference and competition in trying to figure out word (takes longer to figure out)
  • when still hearing the word all the words in neighborhood become active
  • as you hear more of the word some of the words in the neighborhood become inactive
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18
Q

Language Comprehension:

What do the results of Allopenna et al tell us about word comprehension?

A
  • subjects focused on objects on computer screen and given sentence (request)
  • where were people’s eyes looking when asked for “beaker” : equally likely to be looking at beaker or beetle
  • start trying to find out what it means as we’re hearing it
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19
Q

Language Comprehension:
How do the results of Aaronson and Scarborough (1977) and Graf and Torrey (1966) demonstrate the importance of phrase boundaries in language comprehension?

A
  • Aaronson and Scarborough: looked at how long people spend in between words; longer gaps between phrase boundaries
  • Graf and Torrey: gave subjects sentences one line at and then tested comprehension; better comprehension when setnences broken up by phrase boundaries
  • we process in terms of individual phrases not word by word
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20
Q

Language Comprehension:

How can a sentence like “they are cooking apples” have an ambiguous structure?

A
  • some words can be used as verb or adjective (ex. cooking)

- inflection can give away the meaning of a sentence

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21
Q

Language Comprehension:

What are garden path sentences?

A
  • as words are coming in, you are building on meaning so that initial interpretation has to be updated
  • ex. the old train vs. the old train the young
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22
Q

Language Comprehension:
How do the results of Tyler and Marlsen-Wilson (1977) answer whether a sentence’s syntax is processed separately from its semantics?

A
  • subjects read sentences and had to choose appropriate verb; either ambiguous sentence or unambiguous
  • slower response time for unambiguous inappropriate verb, fastest for ambiguous appro.
  • we use semantics to figure out what should come next w/ help of knowledge of syntax
  • we work w/ syntax and semantics at the same time
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23
Q

Language Comprehension:

Describe Singer’s study and how it indicates that people make inference beyond info they’re provided with

A
  • subjects told specific info and asked question
  • in one condition given all info, other cond left out piece of info to see if they would infer
  • RT for inference same as RT for control cond
  • slower response time when more info was removed
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24
Q

Language Comprehension:

What is message subtext? What does it include?

A
  • goes beyond language suing cues from the person delivering the message
  • includes sarcasm, exaggeration and idioms (cultural phrases that go beyond literal meaning)
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25
Q

Language Production:

What is Broca’s area? What is Broca’s aphasia and its symptoms?

A
  • frontal lobe, left hem
  • language production
  • Broca’s aphasia: difficulty speaking, writing, no problem with meaning but trouble getting words out
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26
Q

Language Production:

What are the three processes of speech production? (CFA)

A
  • Conceptualization: figure out meaning you want to convey
  • Formulation: use syntactical structure and pull in words to help convey the meaning
  • Articulation: speech planning, control mouth and breath for words to come out
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27
Q

Language Production:

What is Garrett’s model of speech production? (FPS)

A
  • expansion of formulation level
  • functional level: figure out diff parts of speech (ex. subject, verb, object)
  • positional level: figure out position/order of words
  • sound level: figure out individual sounds of the words
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28
Q

Language Production:

What is the tip-of-the-tongue state speech error?

A
  • functional level

- word that you know but cannot retrieve it from memory when you need it

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29
Q

Language Production:

What is the word substitution speech error?

A
  • functional level

- instead of saying word we want we say a diff word that is related in meaning

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30
Q

Language Production:

What is the word blend speech error?

A
  • functional level

- 2 diff words that might be appropriate in that spot in sentence but come out together/blended instead of picking one

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31
Q

Language Production:

What is the morpheme exchange speech error?

A
  • positional level
  • positional level
  • morpheme (meaning unit) of the word swaps but ending stays same
  • ex. I sampled some randomly- “randomed some samply”
32
Q

Language Production:

What is the word swap/exchange speech error?

A
  • positional level
  • 2 words swap location-wise in sentence
  • usually same parts of speech (ex. noun and noun)
33
Q

Language Production:

What is the phrase blend speech error?

A
  • positional level

- 2 diff phrases get mixed together

34
Q

Language Production:

What is the phoneme deletion speech error?

A
  • sound level
  • sound missing, should be there but isn’t
  • ex. “black” turns into “back”
35
Q

Language Production:

What is the affix deletion speech error?

A
  • sound level
  • affffix = end word
  • drop final sound of word
  • usually the part which indicates if things are plural or past-tense
36
Q

Language Production:

What is the phoneme exchange (spoonerism) speech error?

A
  • sound level

- swap beginnings of two words

37
Q

Language Production:

What is the phoneme preservation speech error?

A
  • sound level

- earlier sounds in sentence show up after they should done

38
Q

Language Production:

What is the phoneme anticipation speech error?

A
  • sound level

- sound in sentence shows up earlier than it should

39
Q

Language Production:

Describe Baars at al’s study

A
  • induced speech errors, subjects read list of word pairs starting w/ same letters (d and b) except flip order on last pair (b and d)
  • Exp. 1: more likely to make spoonerism if ending would be lexical (real) words in context
  • Exp. 2: nonlexical, no context; little diff in whether swap would be non-lexical or lexical
40
Q

Language Production:

How is writing diff from speech?

A
  • time to plan prepare
  • tend to use more complex elements in writing
  • we write alone
41
Q

Language Production:

What are the three stages of writing ? (PTR)

A
  • Planning: figure out message you want to communicate, more time than speech
  • Translation: take ideas from planning stage and put them on paper
  • Reviewing: read what you’ve written to spot errors and make sure message will be communicated to reader
42
Q

Bilingualism and Second-Language Learning:

What is meant by L1 and L2?

A
  • L1 = native language, first language you learn to speak

- L2 = other language you learn

43
Q

Bilingualism and Second-Language Learning:

Are the lexicons of a bilingual’s two languages stored separately or together?

A
  • have some overlap but may not be stored together
44
Q

Bilingualism and Second-Language Learning:

What are cognates?

A
  • word that is similar/same across the two lang you know
45
Q

Bilingualism and Second-Language Learning:

What is code-switching? When does it occur?

A
  • bilingual speaking to another bilingual who speaks same langs
  • while speaking switch to other language (for word, phrase, or rest of sentence)
46
Q

Bilingualism and Second-Language Learning:

What are some advantages and disadvantages to being bilingual?

A
  • disadvantage: bilingual toddlers are slower to acquire ind words
  • advantage: kids get to school know more words than monolingual peers and better capacity for learning language; better understand lang is symbolic; greater capacity for inhibitory control
47
Q

Bilingualism and Second-Language Learning:

What does it mean that bilinguals have greater inhibitory control? Why does this occur?

A
  • inhibit the language you aren’t using when you’re talking to someone
  • more practice at inhibition
48
Q

Bilingualism and Second-Language Learning:

Describe Linck et al’s study

A
  • effect of immersion on ability to inhibit first lang
  • subjects: 25 students abroad in Spain, 20 students on campus in classroom setting
  • translation recognition task: given word in English and word in Spanish, had to indicate if correct translation ve
  • verbal fluency task: given category and come up w/ as many examples as possible
  • immersed learners less distracted by distracters for translation task (not affected by lexical distracters while classroom group was); affected by semantic neighbors while classroom group wasn’t
  • immersed better at producing more words in Spanish for verbal fluency, classroom better with English words
  • data consistent w/ idea that immersed group was inhibiting English while in Spain
49
Q

Language Applications:

What is dyslexia? What are the three types and their symptoms?

A
  • dyslexia: deficit in reading comprehension or speed
  • surface dyslexia: difficulty reading irregular words
  • phonological dyslexia: difficulty sounding out words or non-words
  • deep dyslexia: misreading words as semantically-related ones (ex. “sister” as “daughter”)
50
Q

Language Applications:

What is dysgraphia? What are its two types and their symptoms?

A
  • dysgraphia: difficulty writing
  • surface level: spelling mistakes, writing letters incorrectly, letter spacing
  • deep level: semantic errors, writing the wrong word, word spacing
51
Q

Language Applications:

How does texting abbreviations and emoji compare w/ traditional speech and writing?

A
  • slower to read abbreviations than the real words

- emojis: usually for nouns only, no established syntax, difficulties w/ interpretation

52
Q

Language Applications:
What are some qualities of good writers? How do they differ from poor writers at each of the three stages of writing (planning, translation, reviewing)?

A
  • Planning - good writers manipulate knowledge better, make suitable plans, more flexible in changing their plans; poor writers little planning and disorganized text
  • Translation - good writers write in longer more complex sentences, think in larger chunks, focus on whether writing will be understood and memorable
  • Reviewing: better at making broad changes to the meaning of their text
53
Q

Language Applications:

What are some tips for writing well?

A
  • practice
  • start w/ outline but keep it broad
  • focus on individual sections and their purpose to the overall piece
  • don’t force yourself to write chronologically
  • write for the reader
54
Q

Skill Acquisition and Expertise:

What changes occur with developing expertise?

A
  • practice speeds performance
  • makes it more accurate
  • task requires less mental effort to perform
55
Q

Skill Acquisition and Expertise:

What are the three stages of skill acquisition?

A
  • cognitive
  • associative
  • autonomous
56
Q

Skill Acquisition and Expertise:

Describe the cognitive stage of skill acquisition in terms of the memory rep, performance, and attention demands

A
  • memory rep: declarative
  • performance: slow, inaccurate
  • attention demands: high
57
Q

Skill Acquisition and Expertise:

Describe the associative stage of skill acquisition in terms of the memory rep, performance, and attention demands

A
  • memory rep: association made stronger
  • performance: improving
  • attention demands: medium
58
Q

Skill Acquisition and Expertise:

Describe the autonomous stage of skill acquisition in terms of the memory rep, performance, and attention demands

A
  • memory rep: nondeclarative
  • performance: fast, accurate
  • attention demands: low
59
Q

Skill Acquisition and Expertise:

What is the power law, as applied to skill acquisition?

A
  • steepest declines in time at the beginning, then less steep afterwards
  • little bit of practice initially improves performance a lot, but after it takes much practice to improve
  • skill remains long after practice but may require a “warm-up” period
60
Q 
Skill Acquisition and Expertise:
Describe Kolers (1979) study and what was found
A
  • subjects read “transformed” text
  • initially slow but improved with practice
  • performance improved during first round of practice which is consistent w/ power law
61
Q 
Skill Acquisition and Expertise:
Describe Gray (2004) study and what was found
A
  • single-task was batting a simulated ball, dual task was batting while responding to a tone
  • secondary task was either “extraneous” (reported pitch of tone) or “skill-focused” (report direction of bat)
  • Exp 1: experts not affected by extraneous task but novices were; experts worse w/ skill focused task while novices better
  • Exp 2: more attention to secondary task led to poorer batting performance
  • Exp 3: pressure reduced skill task errors but performance was worse; fewer errors w/ pitch task but more errors overall with skill task
62
Q

Perception-Action Cycle:

What qualifies as a “movement”? As “action”?

A
  • movement: voluntary displacement of a body part in physical space
  • action: series of movements needed to accomplish a goal
63
Q

Perception-Action Cycle:

What is the perception-action cycle?

A
  • idea that perception and action operate as a cycle and interact with one another
  • action directly impacts perception as well (may change it)
64
Q

Perception-Action Cycle:

What is meant by biological motion?

A
  • we understand how animate objects should move
65
Q

Perception-Action Cycle:

What are point-light displays? When viewing them what info are we able to perceive?

A
  • figure outlined by a few dots/lights
  • we see dots/lights but brain fills in details to see person
  • we can perceive: male/female, mental state, weight
66
Q

Perception-Action Cycle:

What is apparent motion? What did Shiffrar and Freyd (1990) do and find?

A
  • apparent motion: see individual frames and brain fills in motion in between frames
  • study found that given enough time our brain defaults to biologically possible motion
  • if too short time then brain goes for shortest path of motion
67
Q

Perception-Action Cycle:

What are affordances?

A
  • how an object permits one to interact with it

- we see objects for their affordances (uses)

68
Q

Perception-Action Cycle:

What are mirror neurons?

A
  • neurons that fire when performing a movement and when viewing someone else do the same exact movement
  • Rizzolatti et al study looked at this with primates grasping objects
69
Q

Perception-Action Cycle:

Describe Proffitt et al’s study

A
  • perception changes based on how much effort we think we’ll need to exert
  • Exp 1: estimate distance to cone, tended to underestimate distance but backpack group made higher estimates than contorl
  • Exp 2: either matched walking speed on treadmill w/ VR or no optic flow motion in VR; no optic flow walked further in place
  • Exp 3: estimate cone distance, treadmill walk, again estimate distance; no optic flow made higher estimates
70
Q

Motor-Planning and Updating:

What 3 brain regions are responsible for programming and executing motor plans? (SPP)

A
  • supplementary motor area: strings together multiple movements to create an action plan
  • premotor cortex: sets up motor programs to accomplish a certain sequence of movements
  • primary motor cortex: sets up motor programs to accomplish a certain sequence of movements
71
Q

Motor-Planning and Updating:

What is the end-state comfort effect? How did Rosenbaum originally study it?

A
  • we plan our movements so that we’re comfortable at the end of the movement
  • originally studied with how people grabbed dowels
72
Q

Motor-Planning and Updating:

Describe Cohen and Rosenbaum’s (2004) study on end-state comfort

A
  • move plunger to different heights on shelf
  • Exp. 1: plan ahead for how high to move plunger “anticipation of shelf height,” (move low grab high, vice versa).
  • Exp 2: changed where subject stood relative to home platform; still end state comfort effect no matter where standing
  • Exp. 3: target single location while home location varied; still end state comfort/ planning
73
Q

Motor Applications:

What is the Alexander Technique?

A
  • “mindful movement” : realizing how your own body moves and paying attention to how it feels when you move
74
Q

Motor Applications:

Describe Cohen et al’s study with the Alexander Technique and Parkinson’s patients

A
  • “lighten up” condition: less resistance for axial tone (amount of resistance when body turns w/ machine), less sway and best posture with quiet stance, step initiation had less jerky movements and better centered foot pressure
75
Q

Motor Applications:

How can the mirror illusion be used to help stroke recovery? What did Michielsen et al find?

A
  • group with mirror therapy had higher post test scores, better able to move their hand after therapy
  • however the effects did not last once therapy was stopped

PSY 306 - Cognitive Psychology (5 decks)

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