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Principles > Immunology > Flashcards

Immunology Flashcards

1
Q

functions of the immune system

A

to identify and eliminate microorganisms

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2
Q

what does the immune system detect?

A
  • self and non-self

- danger signals

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3
Q

what can happen when the immune system goes wrong?

A
  1. recurring infections
  2. allergy
  3. autoimmune diseases
  4. cancer
  5. transplant rejection
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4
Q

three ways of modulating the immune system

A
  1. vaccination
  2. immune suppression
  3. cancer immunotherapy
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5
Q

natural barriers

A
  1. skin
  2. mucous membranes
  3. commensal bacteria
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6
Q

describe how skin is a line of defence

A
  • physical barrier: tightly packed, highly keratinised cells
  • physiological barrier: pH 5.5 and low oxygen tension
  • sebaceous glands
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7
Q

describe how mucous is a natural barrier

A
  • mucous membranes line all body cavities
  • cilia to trap bacteria
  • releases enzymes that kill the invading pathogen.
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8
Q

how are commensal bacteria a natural barrier?

A

compete with pathogens for resources

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9
Q

provision healthcare methods that breach natural barriers are?

A
  • insertion of ‘hardware’

- antibiotics

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10
Q

other natural barriers

A
  • elimination via coughing, sneezing, etc.
  • sweating has lysosomes
  • unfavourable pH
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11
Q

Three sections of the innate immune system

A
  1. leukocytes
  2. complement system
  3. inflammatory response
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12
Q

define innate immunity

A

defence mechanism present from birth that has a rapid response and is non-specific.

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13
Q

define adaptive (acquired) immunity

A

induced by presence of foreign material. Ability to distinguish self and non-self

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14
Q

innate immune cells that recognise non-self pathogens

A
  1. macrophages
  2. dendritic cells
  3. NK cells
  4. mast cells
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15
Q

describe macrophages

A

develop from circulating monocytes. Involved in phagocytosis, antigen presentation and inflammatory response.

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16
Q

describe dendritic cells

A

present in large numbers in tissues in contact with the external environment. Involved in antigen-presenting cells

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17
Q

describe NK cells

A

large granular cells that kill infection and abnormal cells

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18
Q

mast cells

A

defence against parasites and protect mucosal surfaces

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19
Q

name the receptors on pathogens and innate immune cells

A

PAMPS- pathogen associated molecular patterns

PRRs- pattern-recognition receptors

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20
Q

three ways pathogens can be ingested by macrophages

A
  1. pinocytosis (ingestion of fluid surrounding cells)
  2. receptor- mediated endocytosis
  3. phagocytosis
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21
Q

describe the action of macrophages in phagocytosis

A
  1. macrophages express PRRs
  2. bind to PAMPs
  3. pinch off to form a phagosome
  4. lysozyme release lysosomes that forms a phagolysosome
  5. debris is released
  6. MHC-II expressed on receptors
  7. pro-inflammatory mediators released
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22
Q

define opsonisation

A

coating of pathogens using opsonins to enhance phagocytosis

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23
Q

innate immune system against intracellular viruses

A

the infected cells release interferons (beta and alpha). NK cells recognise this and destroy cells.

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24
Q

two functions of mast cells

A
  1. degranulation: released of pro-inflammatory substances

2. gene expression: production of inflammatory mediators

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25
Q

how can macrophage activation be enhanced?

A

pro-inflammatory mediators such as interferon-gamma

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26
Q

chemicals released in localised acute inflammation?

A

nitric oxide, prostaglandins, leukotrienes, histamines, TNF-alpha (cytokines)

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27
Q

define chemokines

A

promote directional movement of cells

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28
Q

what do pro-inflammatory mediators do?

A

enter the blood and are transported to the bone marrow where they stimulate the the production of neutrophils

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29
Q

define trans endothelial migration

A

movement of neutrophils from the blood to tissues through the blood vessel wall

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30
Q

what do pro-inflammatory mediators change in vasculature

A
  • tight junctions lost (increased permeability)
  • dilation of venues
  • expression of specific adhesion molecules (VCAMs and ICAMs)
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31
Q

describe the process of transendothelial migration

A
  • white cell (neutrophil) migration in venules
  • binding of neutrophils to adhesion molecules on endothelial cells (adhesion binding is promoted by histamine and TNF-alpha)
  • diapedesis
  • chemotaxis
  • pathogens express PAMPs
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32
Q

define diapedesis

A

migration of neutrophils across the epithelium

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33
Q

define chemotaxis

A

movement of neutrophils within a tissue

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34
Q

three killing mechanisms of neutrophils

A
  1. phagocytosis
  2. degranulation
  3. NETs
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35
Q

describe neutrophils in phagocytosis

A

chemokine attract neutrophils and bind via PRRs. they can kill via phagolysosome or ROS

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36
Q

describe neutrophil granulation

A

release of anti-bacterial proteins that kill pathogens

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37
Q

describe NETs (neutrophil extracellular traps)

A

activated neutrophils release intracellular structures to the extracellular environment

38
Q

define the acute phase response

A

changes in plasma concentrations of specific proteins

39
Q

define the function of the C reactive protein

A

primes bacteria for destruction by the complement system

40
Q

define the complement system

A

family of proteins that circulate in the blood and enter infected tissues when needed.

41
Q

how do the proteins in the complement system enter the tissues?

A

pro-inflammatory mediators increase vascular permeability and leakiness

42
Q

three pathways of the complement system

A
  1. mannose-binding lectin activation pathway
  2. alternative pathway
  3. classic pathway
43
Q

what does C3b promote?

A
  1. opsonisation and therefore phagocytosis

2. C5

44
Q

what does C5b promote

A

MAC (membrane attack complex)

45
Q

what does C5a and C3a stimulate?

A

acute inflammation

46
Q

explain the mannose-binding pathway

A

mannose is only present on pathogens

47
Q

two types of lymphocytes

A

B cells

T cells

48
Q

describe the structure of an antibody

A

2 light and 2 heavy polypeptide chains with two binding sites.

49
Q

how do B cells recognise antigens?

A

membrane-bound antibodies

50
Q

how do T and B cells enter the lymph nodes?

A

trans endothelial migration

51
Q

where in the lymph node do B cells go?

A

lymphoid follicle

52
Q

two cells that B cells differentiate into?

A
  1. plasma cells (secrete antibodies)

2. memory cells

53
Q

two signals B cells require to become fully activated

A
  1. antigen

2. ‘helper’ signals from T cells

54
Q

two ways antibodies kill the pathogen

A
  1. recognition function

2. effector function: clearance mechanisms (complement system and Fc receptors)

55
Q

describe the antibody IgM

A

serves as a B antigen receptor

involved in agglutination and complement system activation

56
Q

which is the first antibody to be secreted

A

IgM (low affinity, short lived)

57
Q

higher affinity antibodies

A

IgG, IgA and IgE

58
Q

which antibodies is agglutination mediated by?

A

mediated by IgM and IgG

59
Q

describe the classic complement pathway

A
  • activated by Fc regions of antibodies initiated by IgM and IgG
  • conformational change in Fc regions which exposes sites for C1
  • C1 activates C3
60
Q

describe IgG

A
  • most abundant
  • secondary immune response (memory)
  • transported across the placenta
61
Q

define neutralisation

A

blocks sites that pathogens use to enter cells. It is mediated by IgG and IgA

62
Q

describe IgA

A

present in serum, breast milk

63
Q

describe IgD

A

role largely unknown but does activate B cells

64
Q

IgE

A

allergic response

65
Q

two types of T cells involved in intracellular pathogen defence are?

A
  1. CD4+ T cells

2. CD8+ T cells

66
Q

which type of antigens do T cells respond to?

A

peptide antigens when MHC molecules are present

67
Q

which area on T cells is specific to the peptide antigen?

A

hypervariable region by the alpha and beta TCR

68
Q

two classes of MHC molecules

A
  1. class 1 MHC

2. class 2 MHC

69
Q

describe class 1 MHC

A

expressed on all nucleated cells and present antigens for CD8+ cells

70
Q

describe class 2 MHC

A

expressed only on antigen-presenting cells (dendrites, macrophages, B cells) and present antigens for CD4+ cells.

71
Q

which cells do CD4+ T cells activate?

A
  • TH0 cells: CD4 causes these to proliferate
  • TH1 cells: TH0 can differentiate into these. they exit the lymph node and enter inflamed tissue
  • TFH cells: expresses MHC
72
Q

which cells do CD8+ differentiate into?

A

cytotoxic T lymphocytes

73
Q

describe the role of cytotoxic T cells

A

migrate out of lymph nodes into infected sites. they bind to infected cells and programme apoptosis.

74
Q

name the protein lytic granules in cytotoxic T cells

A
  1. perforin(membrane holes)
  2. granzymes (apoptosis)
  3. granulysin (apoptosis)
75
Q

describe the role of dendritic cells in acquired immunity

A
  • phagocytes release debris of the pathogen
  • dendrites phagocytose this material
  • TNF-alpha increases expression of co-stimulatory molecules
  • dendritic cells digest proteins and display with MHC proteins
76
Q

which growth factor do CD4+ T cells secrete?

A

interleukin 2

77
Q

define interleukins

A

glycoproteins that are produced by leukocytes to regulate the immune system

78
Q

describe the functions of IgM

A

agglutination and the complement system

79
Q

which is the first antibody to be produced in the adaptive immune response?

A

IgM

80
Q

which is the most abundant antibody?

A

IgG

81
Q

which two antibodies mediate agglutination

A

IgG and IgM

82
Q

functions of IgG

A
  • memory cells
  • agglutination
  • complement system
  • foetal protection
  • neutralisation
  • opsonisation (Fc receptors)
  • NK cells
83
Q

which antibody is transported across the placenta into the foetal blood circulation?

A

IgG

84
Q

functions of sIgA

A

neutralisation and transported into breast milk

85
Q

functions of IgD

A

B cell antigen receptor

86
Q

functions of IgE

A

allergic response

87
Q

which growth factor causes proliferation of TH0 cells?

A

IL-2

88
Q

function of TH0 cells

A

stimulate proliferation of CD4+ and CD8+

89
Q

which cell can TH0 cells differentiate into?

A

TH1

90
Q

function of TH1

A

leave the lymph node and enter sites of infection/ inflammation. Here they secrete TNF-gamma which enhances macrophages to stimulate ROS

91
Q

function of TFH

A

stimulate B cells to cline and proliferate into plasma cells that produce high affinity antibodies and memory cells

92
Q

describe the Germinal centre reaction

A

secretion of high affinity antibodies

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