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Physiology II 2019 > Exam 3 > Flashcards

Exam 3 Flashcards

1
Q

Compare Thyroxine and Triiodothyronine in terms of the number of tyrosine residues they feature.

A

Thyroxine has 4

Triiodothyronine has 3

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2
Q

What hormone acts on the liver and adipose tissue to break down liver glycogen and increase gluconeogenesis?

A

glucagon

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3
Q

What hormones inhibits the secretion of insulin, glucagon, and gastric? What cell type secretes this hormone?
(also decreases motility and absorption of nutrients from the GI tract)

A

Somatostatin, which is secreted by Delta Cells

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4
Q

Explain the mechanism behind the damage to tissues and blood vessels that is caused by increased levels of blood glucose.

A

Increased blood glucose causes increased osmotic pressure in the extracellular fluid (which causes damage)

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5
Q

Describe what happens, in a healthy person, when the body has excess glucose

A

When excess amounts of glucose are present and the TCA cycle forms an excess of citrate and isocitrate ions.

Increased citrate and isocitrate activates acetyl CoA carboxylase and forms malonyl CoA from Acetyl CoA to synthesize FA’s

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6
Q

Most of the glucose absorbed after a meal is stored as ______ in the liver

A

glycogen

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7
Q

What hormone is stimulated to be released by acidic foods in the upper intestine? what cells secrete it?

A

Secretin, which is secreted by S mucosal cells (in the duodenum and upper Jejunum)

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8
Q

What hormone is released in response to hydrogen ions, small peptides, AA, and FA’s in the duodenum?

(also stimulates enzyme secretion by acinar cells that potentiates the effect of secretin)

A

Acetylcholine (from the parasympathetic nerves/enteric nervous system)

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9
Q

Compare the pancreatic secretions of Acinar Cells and Ductal Cells

A

Acinar Cells: produce a small volume of pancreatic secretion composed of mainly Sodium and Chloride ions

Ductal Cells: secrete Bicarbonate ion and resorb Chloride ion via a chloride-bicarbonate exchange mechanism
(these secretions are isotonic ; aka, water can freely permeate through these ducts)

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10
Q

State what the Following type of pancreatic islet cells secrete

Alpha:
Beta:
Delta:

A

Alpha: secrete glucagon (25% of total cells)

Beta: secrete Insulin and Amylin
(insulin inhibits glucagon and Amylin inhibits Insulin secretion)

Delta: Secrete Somatostatin
(Somatostatin inhibits insulin, glucagon, and gastrin secretion)

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11
Q

Compare hepatic bile with gallbladder bile

A

Hepatic bile is produced AND secreted by the liver

Gallbladder bile is simply hepatic bile (still produced by the liver) that has been stored and Concentrated
(super saiyan bile)

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12
Q

Compare the terms prenatal and fetal in terms of time period of development

A

Prenatal: between fertilized egg and birth

Fetal: between the 9th week of gestation and birth

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13
Q

During the time of fetal circulation, compare the quality of blood that the umbilical arteries and the umbilical vein carry

A

Umb. Arteries: carry low oxygen blood and fecal waste (begin at the descending Aorta)

Umb. Veins: carry oxygenated blood (enters the ductus venosus to skip the liver and enter the inferior vena cava (while still oxygenated))

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14
Q

What cells ingest iron into the embryo so that it may form red blood cells? At what week does iron begin to be bound as hemoglobin in the fetus?

A

Trophoblastic Cells

at the 3rd week

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15
Q

Total fetal cardiac output is a combination of the output of what 2 circulatory structures?

A

The left ventricle (35%) and the Right Ventricle (65%)

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16
Q

What type of cells produce respiratory surfactant and at what time period of gestation does this surfactant begin to be produced?

A

Type II Alveolar cells produce surfactant in the LAST 3 weeks of gestation (at 24 weeks gestation)

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17
Q

State what the fetus uses the following vitamins for.

B12 and Folic Acid: 
Vitamin C:
Vitamin D: 
Vitamin E: 
Vitamin K:
A

B12 and Folic Acid: necessary for formation of RBCs and the Nervous system

Vitamin C: Necessary for bone matrix and CT

Vitamin D: Needed for normal bone growth (mother needs to used this to absorb Ca2+ from the GI tract)

Vitamin E: needed for early embryonic development

Vitamin K: used by fetal liver to create normal clotting factors

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18
Q

When during development will the brain first be present? compare Activity Independent and Activity Dependent mechanisms of brain development

A

at Week 10

Activity Independent mechanisms: genetically programmed development/brain connections

Activity Dependent mechanisms: occur once the basic brain setup has occurred and creates/modifies synapses based on the type/amount of brain activity that occurs

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19
Q

At what week does brain development begin to occur rapidly? what other major sensory organ is formed around this time?

A

week 26

The Cochleae

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20
Q

State the teratogen that is described.

Anti-nausea drug that causes limb defects

Growth retardation and abruption of the placenta

Flattened thin upper lip/nasal bridge, epicanthal folds, microcephaly, learning disabilities

Preterm delivery, microcephaly, and CNS abnormalities

Fetal renal failure and pulmonary hypoplasia

A

Thalidomide: Anti-nausea drug that causes limb defects

Smoking: Growth retardation and abruption of the placenta

Fetal Etoh Syndrome: Flattened thin upper lip/nasal bridge, epicanthal folds, microcephaly, learning disabilities

Cocaine: Preterm delivery, microcephaly, and CNS abnormalities

ACE inhibitors: Fetal renal failure and pulmonary hypoplasia

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21
Q

At birth, the walls of the alveoli are ______. At what point during a baby’s first breaths will air actually enter the lungs and change the volume of the lungs?

A

collapsed (first breaths must be strong in order to inflate them; big time milestone)

at -40 cm H2O (then lung volume changes)

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22
Q

Neonatal breathing pattern features periods of _____ followed by periods of _____, which can correlate with changes in heart rate and blood gas concentrations.

A

Apnea

Tachypnea

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23
Q

Failure to establish respirations in a neonate will cause death/serious permanent brain damage after how long?

A

4 minutes or greater

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24
Q

briefly describe what happens to the blood flow through the ductus arteriosus and the ductus venosus after birth.

A

Ductus Arteriosus: increased aortic pressure and decreased pulmonary pressure causes backward flow through the ductus arteriosus
(muscle wall closes over 8 day period and eventually becomes fibrous)

Ductus venosus: Immediately after birth, nothing happens. Within 1-3 hours the muscle wall of the ductus venosus contracts to close the duct and add 10 mmHg of pressure into the portal venous pressure.

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25
Q

Classify the following causes of hyperbilirubinemia as either an intrinsic cause or extrinsic cause.

Enzymy conditions
Sepsis
Rh Incompatibility
Sickle Cell

A

Intrinsic Causes:
Enzyme Conditions
Sickle Cell

Extrinsic Causes:
Sepsis
Rh Incompatibility

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26
Q

Explain why the first few days after birth will show a decrease in blood glucose levels and a 20% weight drop in a newborn.

A

The newborn’s liver is still too immature to perform gluconeogenesis and the baby is using stored protein and fat for energy while it’s liver matures

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27
Q

State the different categories that are featured in an Apgar score. Why is a perfect score of 10 (2 possible points per category) almost never recorded)

A 
Appearance:
Pulse:
Grimace: 
Activity: 
Respiratory:

Normal early cyanosis causes some deficits in most newborns

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28
Q

JAK-STAT receptors are an example of ____-_____ hormone receptors. Where is the receptor portion of this found?

A

Enzyme-linked

receptors for these are extracellular

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29
Q

State the signal transduction mechanism that is described below.

GPCR stimulates cAMP, which activates a cAMP-dependent protein kinase that will go on to activate a cascade of enzymes.

A

Adenyl cyclase - cAMP second messenger system

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30
Q

State the signal transduction mechanism that is described below.

Hormones activate transmembrane receptors that activate enzyme phospholipase C which then catalyzes the breakdown of phospholipids in the cell membrane

A

Cell Membrane phospholipid second messenger system

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31
Q

State the signal transduction mechanism that is described below, and compare the 2 listed mechanisms

Steroid Hormones and Thyroid Hormones

A

Hormones acting directly on DNA

Steroid Hormones: diffuse across the cell membrane, form a complex with receptor proteins in the cytoplasm, then the complex binds to DNA

Thyroid Hormones: Bind to receptors in the nucleus and activate many kinds of proteins (usually increases metabolic activity)

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32
Q

For the following types of Anterior Pituitary cell types, state the hormone that they secrete

Somatotropes (acidophils): 
Corticotrope: 
Thyrotropes:
Gonadotropes: (2 for this one)
Lactotropes:
A

Somatotropes (acidophils): HGF

Corticotrope: ACTH

Thyrotropes: TSH
Gonadotropes: LH and FSH

Lactotropes: Prolactin

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33
Q

Compare ADH and Oxytocin in terms of the location of the magnocellular neurons that produce them.

A

ADH: formed in the supraoptic nuclei

Oxytocin: formed in the paraventricular nuclei

(these are both posterior pituitary hormones that are created by magnocellular neurons)

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34
Q

Describe the Hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal system using the following terms.

Median eminence
Portal system
Hypothalamic releasing and inhibitory hormones (factors)

A

Basically, the hypothalamus, the collecting center for information about the body’s well being, controls the anterior pituitary gland to secrete whatever hormonal signals the body needs
(Hypothalamic releasing and inhibitory hormones (factors))

The median eminence is where the anterior pituitary secretes it’s hormones, and the diffuse into circulation via the portal system

35
Q

What is MIT and DIT?
What does DIT + DIT equal?
What about DIT + MIT?

A

MIT: monoiodotyrosine
DIT: diiodotyrosine

DIT + DIT = Thyroxine (T4)
DIT + MIT = Triiodothyronine (T3)

36
Q

Thyroid cells secrete ____ into the follicle, and each molecule contains about 30 molecules of Thyroxine. What has to occur to iodide ions before they can be bound with tyrosine in order to form thyroxine?

A

Thyroglobulin

They must be oxidized

37
Q

Deficiency of what enzyme mimics Iodine deficiency?

A

Deiodinase enzyme (bc the iodinated tyrosine in the thyroglobulin cannot be recycled; lead to iodine deficiency)

38
Q

Conversion from T4 to T3 requires what enzyme?

A

5’-iodinase

39
Q

What plasma protein is synthesized by the liver and binds with most thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) as soon as they enter the blood stream?

A

TBG (Thyroxine-binding Globulin)

40
Q

Which Thyroid hormone is able to cross the nuclear membrane and induce physiological functions?

A

T3 (T4 cannot, and must be converted to T3 in order to cross the nuclear membrane)

41
Q

TSH acts on follicular cells via what signal transduction mechanism?

A

Adenylate cyclase - cAMP mechanism

42
Q

Which thyroid disease is caused by IgG components that mimic TSH by binding to TSH receptors and causing high levels of Thyroxine and low levels of TSH?

A

Graves disease (hyperthyroid disorder)

43
Q

What is the rate limiting step of Synthesizing corticosteroids from cholesterol? What part of the cell converts cholesterol to pregnenolone during the process?

A

Cholesterol Desmolase (enzyme), which converts Cholesterol to Pregnenolone in the MITO

44
Q

What is the major mineralocorticoid and the major glucocorticoid?

A

Aldosterone = main mineralocorticoid

Cortisol = main Glucocorticoid

45
Q

Explain the effect Aldosterone has on the following

Sodium:
Potassium:
Hydrogen Ion:
Blood Volume:

A

Sodium: increases it’s reabsorption in the kidneys
Potassium: increases it’s excretion in the kidneys
Hydrogen Ion: increases its secretion in the kidneys
Blood Volume: increases it (via it’s kidney mechanisms)

46
Q

What controls the secretion of cortisol?

What is the second messenger for both CRH and ACTH

A

ACTH (from ant. pituitary)

cAMP

47
Q

Compare 19 carbon, 18 carbon, and 17 carbon steroids.

A

19: have androgenic activity (and are precursors for estrogens)
18: have estrogenic activity
17: adrenal androgens (so 19 carbon steroids) are excreted as 17 carbon ketosteroids in the urine

48
Q

DHEA (dehydroepiandrosterone) becomes what in the testes?

A

testosterone

49
Q

What is the cause of cushing’s disease?

A

Excess ACTH secretion

50
Q

Increases in Ca2+ cause what type of pathology to occur? At what level of blood calcium do symptoms begin to appear?

A

Depression of the nervous system, which begin at levels above 12 mg/dl (Hypercalcemia)

51
Q

For Calcium and Phosphate, state what percentage of them is stored in the following

In ECF:
In Cells:
In Bones:

A

Calcium
In ECF: 0.1%
In Cells: 1%
In Bones: 99%

Phosphate
In ECF: 0.1%
In Cells: 15%
In Bones: 85%

52
Q

What level of concentration is a normal calcium level? what level will hypocalcemia cause tetany? What level causes death?

A

Normal: 9.5 mg/dl
Tetany: 6 mg/dl
Death: 4 mg/dl

53
Q

What is the function of Pyrophosphate?

A

Pyrophosphate: an inhibitor for the precipitation of Hydroxyapatite crystals (prevents bone formation in tissues that are not bone)
(Bones secrete a pyrophosphate inhibitor to allow bone formation)

54
Q

Compare Calcification with Ossification

A

Calcification can occur in ANY tissue

Ossification is the precipitation of Ca2+ along the collagen fibers laid down by osteoblasts (forms hydroxyapatite crystals)

55
Q

What is an amorphous salt and why is it useful?

A

Amorphous Salt: a noncrystalline form of Ca2+
(These salts are converted to hydroxyapatite over time (aka bones))

can be rapidly absorbed in times of need for more Ca2+ in the ECF to provide a buffering system

56
Q

Compare the effects of a small amount of vitamin D with a large amount of vitamin D.

A

Small amount: causes bone calcification

Large amount: causes absorption of bone

57
Q

Briefly describe the 3 step process that synthesizes PTH. What 2 organelles does this process occur in?

A
  1. Preprohormone
  2. Prohormone
  3. Hormone (which is then packaged into granules)

Occurs in the ER and Golgi

58
Q

Name the peptide hormone that is synthesized by the parafollicular cells (C cells) and secreted by the thyroid gland. What disease is this associated with?

A

Calcitonin

Paget’s disease (Calcitonin is thought to accelerate the rate of osteoclastic reabsorption of Ca2+ from the bone)

59
Q

The efferent activity of the ANS is largely regulated by _____

A

Reflexes (not spinal reflexes)

60
Q

Compare preganglionic and postganglionic neurons in terms of the following

Cell body location:
Axon myelination:
Neurotransmitter(s) used:

A

Preganglionic
Cell body location: in CNS
Axon myelination: yes
Neurotransmitter(s) used: ACh

Postganglionic
Cell body location: in PNS
Axon myelination: no
Neurotransmitter(s) used:
ACh in parasympathetic system
Norepinephrine in Sympathetic system
61
Q

Where are the cells bodies of sympathetic preganglionic neurons found?

A

Intermediolateral Horn of the Spinal Cord

62
Q

State the area of the body that the following groups of the 12 thoracic sympathetic chain ganglia pairs supply

T1:
T2:
T3-6:
T7-11:
T12-L2:
A

T1: (fused with inferior cervical ganglion) Stellate ganglion, goes to head

T2: to neck

T3-6: to Thorax

T7-11: to Abdomen

T12-L2: to Lower Extremities

63
Q

For the following Splanchnic Nerves, state where they synapse

T5-T9 (Greater):
T10-11 (Lesser):
T12 (Least):
L1-2 (Lumbar):

A

T5-T9 (Greater): Celiac Ganglion

T10-11 (Lesser): Superior Mesenteric Ganglion

T12 (Least): Aorticorenal Ganglion

L1-2 (Lumbar): Superior AND Inferior Mesenteric Ganglion

64
Q

What enzyme metabolizes most of the Norepinephrine that is secreted into the body? where in the body does this occur?

A

MAO (Monoamine Oxidase), and it does this to NE in circulation
(COMT breaks down NE in tissues)

65
Q

Compare the receptors that Norepinephrine and Epinephrine excite

A

Norepinephrine: excites mainly Alpha receptors but also Beta receptors to a lesser extent

Epinephrine: excites Alpha AND Beta receptors equally

66
Q

Which beta receptor, upon excitement causes the following?

Cardio Acceleration
Increased myocardial strength
Lipolysis

A

Beta1

67
Q

Which drug blocks Sympathetic Beta1 and Beta2 receptors?

What about the drug that blocks just Sympathetic Beta1 receptors?

A

Propranolol: Sympathetic Beta1 and Beta2 receptors

Metoprolol: Sympathetic Beta1 receptors

68
Q

Which type of Acetylcholine receptors work through G proteins and which work via Ion channels?

A

Muscarinic: work through G proteins

Nicotinic: work via Ion channel

69
Q

Compare Spermatogenesis with Spermiogenesis

A

Spermatogenesis: Formation of Spermatids

Spermiogenesis: Maturation of spermatids into mature sperm

70
Q

What cells “nurse” sperm through spermatogenesis? what is another name for these cells?

A

Sertoli cells aka Sustentacular cells

71
Q

What cells are found in the interstitial spaces in the testes? What do they secrete?

A

Leydig cells, which secrete Testosterone

72
Q

What substance is added to semen, which contains sperm, in order to make cervical mucus more receptive to sperm movement?

A

Prostaglandins (also thought that they may cause retro-peristaltic contraction of the uterus and fallopian tubes ; helpful AF)

73
Q

State where the following percentages of the total volume of semen are contributed from.

10%
30%
60%

A

10%: Sperm
30%: Prostate Gland secretions
60%: Seminal Vesicle secretions

74
Q

State the 3 known Androgens and then that the 2 “ingredients” that the testes and adrenal glands synthesize them from.

A
  1. Testosterone
  2. Dihydrotestosterone (most of the testosterone that is in tissues)
  3. Androstenedione
    “(TAD more masculine)”

Synthesized from Cholesterol and Acetyl-CoA

75
Q

97% of secreted testosterone is found in what condition?

A

loosely bound with Albumin or tightly bound with Beta Globulin

76
Q

What is the function of Inhibin in males and what cells secrete it?

A

Functions to inhibit secretion of FSH (from ant. pituitary)

Secreted by Sertoli cells

77
Q

Compare the Theca Internal with the Theca Externa

A

Theca Interna: becomes epithelioid and secretes Estrogen and Progesterone

Theca External: becomes the protective capsule of the developing follicle

78
Q

What causes the Antrum to appear?

A

Granulosa cells secrete a follicular fluid that contains a high concentration of Estrogen (causes the Antrum to appear)

79
Q

Describe the function of the Granulosa cells of the primordial follicles during childhood

A

they provide nourishment for the ovum and secrete oocyte maturation-inhibiting factor to keep it suspended in it’s primordial state

80
Q

Beginning with Progesterone, which was synthesized from cholesterol in Granulosa Cell, explain how granulosa cells and theca cells work together to make Estrogens from it.

A

Progesterone leave the Granulosa cell and enter the Theca cell where it is converted to Androgens

These Androgens then leave the Theca cell, re-enter the Granulosa Cell, and are made into Estrogens (this step is stimulated by FSH and its cAMP secondary signalling)

81
Q

A weakened follicle wall and ____ ____ cause the follicle to rupture and ovulation to occur. what enzyme causes this weakened cell wall?

A

Follicle Swelling

Collagenase (a proteolytic enzyme) causes a weakened cell wall

82
Q

The proliferative stage of the menstrual cycle is controlled by _____. Which 2 cells does this hormone induce to rapidly proliferate?

A

Estrogen

Stromal and Epithelial cells rapidly proliferate

83
Q

The Secretory Stage of the menstrual cycle is controlled by _____. What effects does this hormone have on the endometrium?

A

Progesterone

causes swelling and secretory development of the endometrium.

84
Q

What is “Uterine Milk” and why is it important?

A

Uterine Milk: the secretions of the secretory endometrium during the secretory stage of menstruation that contain large amounts of nutrients

Sperm and dividing ovum are nourished by this “Uterine Milk”

Physiology II 2019 (9 decks)

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