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PHARM 110 > 8 - Central Nervous System > Flashcards

8 - Central Nervous System Flashcards

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1
Q

What Secondary brain structures give rise to Adult brain structures?

list them

A
  • Telencephalon -> cerebrum, lateral ventricles
  • Diencephalon -> diencephalon, 3rd ventricle
  • Mesencephalon -> Midbrain (brain stem), cerebral aqueduct
  • Metencephalon -> Pons (brain stem) & Cerebellum, 4th ventricle
  • Myelencephalon -> medulla oblongata (brain stem), Central canal
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2
Q

What are the Axis of the brain?

Rostral, caudal, dorsal & ventral

A
  • rostral - anterior
  • caudal - posterior
  • dorsal - superior
  • ventral - inferior
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3
Q

What are the main Adult brain regions?

A
  • Cerebral hemispheres
  • Diencephalon
  • Brain stem – midbrain, pons & medulla
  • Cerebellum
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4
Q

What are the Cerebral lobes?

A
  • Frontal lobe
  • Parietal lobe
  • Temporal lobe
  • Occipital lobe
  • Insular lobe
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5
Q

What are the Cerebral Hemisphere Markings?

A
  • Central Sulcus - separates precentral & post central gyrus
  • Lateral sulcus - frontal & parietal lobes
  • Transverse cerebral fissure - cerebrum from cerebellum
  • longitudinal fissure - left & right cerebral hemispheres
  • parieto-occipital sulcus - parietl & occipital lobes
  • calcarine sulcus - separates primary visual cortex
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6
Q

What layers protect the brain?

A
  • SCALP
    • Skin, CT, Aponeurosis, LCT, Pericranium
  • Bone (skull)
  • Blood-brain barrier
  • Membranes (meninges)
  • Watery cushion (CSF)
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7
Q

What is the blood brain barrier & what does it do?

A
  • Helps maintain stable envmt for brain
  • Physically separates neurons from certain bloodborne substances
  • Acts as a metabolic barrier
  • Surrounds majority of brain tissue
  • Tight junctions b/w endothelial cells is the key structure to the blood-brain barrier
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8
Q

Blood-brain Barrier Transport Routes

A
  • Paracellular – doesn’t typically happen, not a practical route
  • Transcellular – lipophilic, efflux pump shoots it back out
  • Inhibit – more can get through, some drugs are efflux inhibitors
  • Transport proteins – bring in energy molecules, ex. Glucose
  • Receptor-mediated transcytosis – ex. Insulin
  • Absorptive transcytosis
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9
Q

What are the Meningeal layers and what do Meninges do?

A
  • dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater
  • Cover & protect CNS
  • Divides skull into parts
  • Protect blood vessels & enclose dural venous sinuses
  • Contain cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
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10
Q

What are the functions of CSF?

A
  • Gives buoyancy to brain
  • Protects CNS from blows & trauma
  • Nourishes brain & carries chemical signals
  • Clears wastes
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11
Q

What are the Ventricles? Path through them?

A

lateral ventricle > Interventricular foramen > 3rd ventricle > cerebral aqueduct > 4th ventricle > median aperature, lateral aperature, central canal

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12
Q

What are the Dural Venous Sinuses?

A
  • Superior Sagittal sinus
  • Inferior Saggital Sinus
  • Straight sinus
  • Transverse sinus
  • Sigmoid sinus
  • Internal Jugular vein
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13
Q

What is the Path of CSF from ventricles to sinues?

A

Ventricles > Choroid plexus of 3rd ventricle > Subarachnoid space > Arachnoid villi > Sinuses

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14
Q

What are the cerebral hmeispheres composed of?

A
  • White matter - Myelinated fibers & their tracts, highways
  • Cerebral cortex - Thin layer of superficial gray matter, cities
  • Subcortical nuclei - Basal ganglia (PNS)/nuclei (CNS)
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15
Q

What are the 3 types of White Matter fibers?

A
  • Commissural fibers – connect gray matter of 2 hemispheres
  • Association fibers – connect diff parts of same hemisphere
  • Projection fibers – connect hemispheres w/ lower brain or spinal cord
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16
Q

What are the main Functional Areas of Cerebral Cortex?

A
  • Motor areas – control voluntary movement
  • Sensory areas – conscious awareness of sensation
  • Association areas – integrate diverse information
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17
Q

Primary Motor Cortex

A
  • Precentral gyri of frontal lobe contains pyramidal neurons
  • Long axons form upper motor neuron corticospinal tracts
  • Allows conscious control of precise, skilled, voluntary movements
  • Somatotopic arrangement
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18
Q

Premotor Cortex

A
  • Anterior to precentral gyrus in frontal lobe
  • Sends info to primary motor cortex to coordinate muscle groups for simultaneous or sequential actions
  • Controls learned, repetitious, or patterned motor skills
  • Involved in planning of movements that depend on sensory feedback
  • Direct connection w/ corticospinal tract (15%)
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19
Q

Broca’s Area

A
  • Anterior to inferior region of premotor area in frontal lobe
  • Present in 1 hemisphere (usually left)
  • Motor speech area that directs tongue muscles
  • Active as one prepares to speak
  • Area in right hemisphere controls non-verbal communication

Left side – programs what you say
Right side – programs how you say it

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20
Q

Frontal Eye Field

A
  • Anterior to premotor cortex in frontal lobe, superior to Broca’s area
  • Controls voluntary eye movements
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21
Q

Primary Somatosensory Cortex

A
  • In postcentral gyri of parietal lobe
  • Receives sensory info from skin, skeletal muscles & joints
  • Capable of spatial discrimination
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22
Q

Somatosensory Association Cortex

A
  • Posterior to primary somatosensory cortex
  • Integrates sensory input from primary somatosensory cortex
  • Determines size, texture & relationship of parts of objects being felt
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23
Q

Primary Visual Cortex

A
  • Extreme posterior tip of occipital lobe (most of it is buried medially in calcarine sulcus)
  • Receives visual info from retinas
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24
Q

Visual Association Area

A
  • Surrounds primary visual cortex
  • Uses past visual experiences to interpret visual stimuli (ex. Color, form & movement)
  • Complex processing involves entire posterior ½ of cerebral hemispheres
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25
Primary Auditory Cortex
* Superior margin of temporal lobes * Interprets info from inner ear as pitch, loudness & location
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Auditory Association Cortex
* Posterior to primary auditory cortex * Stores memories of sounds & permits perception of sounds
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Olfactory Cortex
* Medial aspect of temporal lobes * Conscious awareness of odors
28
Gustatory Cortex
* In insula, deep to temporal lobe * Involved in perception of taste
29
Visceral Sensory Area
* Posterior to gustatory cortex * Conscious perception of visceral sensations
30
Multimodal Association Areas
* Receives input from multiple sensory areas; sends output to multiple areas * Allow us to give meaning to info received, store it as memory, compare it to previous experience & decide on actions to take * 3 parts: - Anterior association area (aka prefrontal cortex) - Posterior association area - Limbic system (deep) * Info > recognize what it is > do we need to do something
31
Anterior Association Area
* In frontal lobe – just deep to forehead * Most complicated cortical region (executive function) * Involved w/ intellect, cognition, recall & personality * Not fully developed until you're 25
32
Posterior Association Area
* Large region in temporal, parietal & occipital lobes * Plays role in recognizing patterns, faces & localizing us in space * Prosopagnosia, unilateral neglect * Involved in understanding written & spoken language – Wernicke's area
33
Limbic Association Area
* Part of limbic system * Provides emotional impact & helps establish memories
34
Basal Nuclei
* Subcortical nuclei * Consists of corpus striatum - Caudate nucleus – next to lateral ventricle - Lentiform nucleus - Putamen – lateral cone - Globus pallidus – medial * Functionally associated w/ subthalamic nuclei (diencephalon) and substantia nigra (midbrain)
35
What are the functions of basal nuclei?
* Influence muscular control * Help regulate attention & cognition * Regulate intensity of slow or stereotyped movements * Inhibit antagonistic & unnecessary movements
36
What makes up the Diencephalon?
* Hypothalamus * Thalamus * Epithalamus * 3rd ventricle runs through
37
Thalamus
* 80% of diencephalon * Superolateral walls of 3rd ventricle * Connected by interthalamic adhesion * Contains several nuclei that project & receive fibers from cerebral cortex * **Relay station**
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Hypothalamus
* Forms inferolateral walls of 3rd ventricle * Contains many nuclei * Mammillary bodies (memory, limbic & smell) * Supraoptic & paraventricular nuclei – posterior pituitary * Suprachiasmatic nucleus – pineal gland
39
What are the functions of Hypothalamus
* Autonomic control center for many visceral functions * Regulates body temp, food intake, water balance, & thirst * Regulates sleep & sleep cycle * Produces posterior pituitary hormones * Controls release of hormones by anterior pituitary * Center for emotional response – the 4 F's - Feeding - Fearing - Fighting - Fornication
40
Epithalamus
* Most posterior of diencephalon & roof of 3rd ventricle * Pineal gland - secretes melatonin * Pine cone shaped
41
What parts make up the brain stem?
* midbrain * pons * medulla oblongata
42
What are the stuctures on the Midbrain?
* Crus cerebri of cerebral peduncles - contain pyramidal motor tracts * Superior colliculi (2) - visual reflex centers * Interior colliculi (2) - auditory relay centers * Substantia nigra - functionally linked to striatum (dopamine) * So have dopaminergic inputs to nuclei * Red nucleus - relay nuclei for some descending motor pathways & part of reticular formation * Periaqueductal gray - suppresses pain
43
What are the structures of Pons?
* Forms part of anterior wall of 4th ventricle * Pyramidal tract - connects higher brain centers & spinal cord (motor) * Some nuclei of reticular formation * Nuclei that help maintain normal rhythm of breathing
44
What are the Structures of Medulla Oblongata?
* Joins spinal cord at foramen magnum * Forms part of ventral wall of 4th ventricle * Pyramids - 2 ventral longitudinal ridges formed by pyramidal tracts (motor) * Decussation of pyramids - crossover of corticospinal tracts * Inferior olivary nuclei - relay sensory info form muscles & joints to cerebellum * Several nuclei - nucleus cuneatus & nucleus gracilis * Relay sensory info
45
What are the Autonomic Reflex Centers in MO?
* Cardiovascular center: ○ Cardiac center - adjusts force & rate of heart contraction ○ Vasomotor center - adjusts blood vessel diameter for BP regulation ○ Both have influence blood pressure * Respiratory centers: ○ Generate respiratory rhythm ○ Control rate & depth of breathing * Additional centers regulate vomiting, hiccupping, swallowing, coughing, & sneezing
46
What is the Cerebellum & its Functions?
* Posterior to pons & medulla * Subconsciously provides precise timing & appropriate patterns of skeletal muscle contraction * Ipsilateral to body * Form coordinated movement * Plays role in nonmotor functions such as word association & puzzle solving
47
What are the Structures of Cerebellum?
* hemispheres connected by vermis * Each hemisphere has 3 lobes ○ Anterior ○ Posterior ○ Flocculonodular (vesibular) * Folia - transversely oriented gyri of gray matter making up cerebellar cortex ○ Contains Perkinjee cells ○ Arbor vitae - distinctive treelike pattern of cerebellar white matter * 3 paired fiber tracts connect cerebellum to brain stem ○ Superior cerebellar peduncles - connect cerebellum to midbrain (sup.) ○ Middle cerebellar peduncles - connect pons to cerebellum ○Inferior cerebellar peduncles - connect medulla & cerebellum (inf.)
47
What areas of Cerebrum does Middle Cerebral Artery Supply?
* face & head * Broca Area * Wernicke's area * Visual cortex * Auditory area * motor & sensory for hip, trunk, arm, hands, fingers, thumb, face, lips, tongue, mouth * Language comprehensions * Reading & writing
47
What areas of cerebrum does Anterior Cerebral Arteries supply?
* prefrontal cortex - working memory, exectuvie functions, complex problem solving * supplementary motor area * Motor Area for foot, leg, and urinary bladder * somatic sensory - sensory area for foot & leg
48
What areas of cerebrum does Posterior Cerebral Arteries supply?
* Visual cortex w/ striate along calcarine sulcus * primary visual cortex & visual association area
48
What are Functional Brain systems? | Definition
* Networks of neurons that work together & span wide areas of brain
48
What are examples of Functional brain systems
* Limbic system * Reticular formation * Direct & indirect pathways of the basal nuclei
48
What is the Limbic System? Parts?
* Structures from medial cerebral hemispheres & diencephalon * Cerebral structures encircle superior brainstem * Establish emotional states * Linking conscious, intellectual functions of cerebral cortex w/ unconscious & autonomic functions of brain stem * Facilitating memory storage & retrieval * Amygdala, Cingulate Gyrus, Hippocampus
48
Amygdala
* Almond-shaped nucleus anterior to tail of caudate deep in medial temporal lobes * Critical for responding to perceived threats * Required for emotional memory
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Cingulate Gyrus
* Located along medial aspect of cerebral hemispheres next to corpus callosum * Plays a role in responding to perceived threats, expressing emotions vis gestures & resolves mental conflict when frustrated
49
Hippocampus
* Looks like sea horse * Located in medial temporal lobe * Connected to mammillary bodies of hypothalamus through white matter (fornix) * Plays role in learning, memory & emotion
49
Reticular Activating System
* Sends impulses to cerebral cortex to keep it conscious & alert & enhancing its excitability * Filters out repetitive & weak stimuli (99%) * Inhibited by sleep centers of hypothalamus & other neural regions ○ Depressed by alcohol, sleep inducing drugs & tranquilizers * Severe injury results in permanent unconsciousness
49
What is the Reticular Formation?
* 3 broad columns along length of brain stem * Has far-flung axonal connections w/ hypothalamus, thalamus, cerebral cortex, cerebellum & spinal cord * Regulate visceral motor functions (vasomotor, cardiac & respiratory centers) * Helps control coarse limb movements Not specific, coordinated movements
49
What is Consciousness & the continuum?
* Simultaneous activity of large areas of the cerebral cortex - Conscious perception of sensation - Voluntary initiation & control of movement - Capabilities associated w/ higher mental processing (memory, logic, judgment etc..) * Alertness * Drowsiness (lethargy) -> sleep * Stupor * Coma
50
What occurs during sleep?
* State of partial unconsciousness from which a person can be aroused by stimulation * Alternating cycles of sleep & wakefulness reflect a natural circadian rhythm * RAS activity is inhibited during sleep * Suprachiasmatic & preoptic nuclei of hypothalamus time sleep cycle * Releases peptide orexins which activate reticular formation (wake-up chemical) * Nonrapid eye movement (NREM) * Rapid eye movement (REM)
51
What is the Importance of Sleep?
* Slow-wave sleep (NREM stages 3 & 4) is restorative stage * deprived of REM sleep become moody & depressed & exhibit various personality disorders * REM sleep may be a reverse learning process * enhances immune system - sleep-inducing factors include interlukin-1, interferon, serotonin & tumor necrosis factor
52
What are the 2 stages of Memory?
* Short-term memory (STM or working memory) - Temporary holding of info, limited to 7-8 pieces of info * Long-term memory (LTM) has limitless capacity - Can have some info go directly to long term memory
53
What factors affect transfer from STM to LTM?
* Emotional state - best if alert, motivated, surprised, & aroused * Rehearsal - repetition & practice * Association - tying new info w/ old memories * Automatic memory - subconscious info stored in LTM
54
What occurs on a Molecular Level for Memory?
* Altered mRNA is synthesized & moved to axons & dendrites * Dendritic spines change shape * Extracellular proteins are deposited at synapses involved in LTM * Number & size of presynaptic terminals may increase * More neurotransmitter is released by presynaptic neurons
55
What is Declarative Memory
* Related to conscious thoughts & language ability * Stored in LTM w/ context in which it was learned * Hippocampus & surrounding temporal lobes function in consolidation & access to memory * **Ach** from basal forebrain is necessary for memory formation & retrieval
55
What is Nondeclarative Memory
* Less conscious or unconscious * Acquired through experience & repetition (best remembered by doing, hard to unlearn) * Emotional memory - Amygdala * Motor memory - Cerebellum * Procedural memory - basal nuclei relay sensory info & motor inputs to thalamus & premotor cortex * **Dopamine**
56
When excitatory neuron fires a lot...
postsynaptic neuron will fire alot
57
When excitatory neuron fires a little...
Postsynaptic neuron fires a little
58
When inhibitory neuron fires a lot...
postsynaptic neuron fires a little
59
When inhibitory neuron fires a little...
Postsynaptic neuron fires a lot
60
Effect of dopamine direct vs. indirect
Direct circuit is excited by SNpc dopamine input while indirect circuit is inhibited by SNpc dopamine
61
Effect of thalamic input to cortex - direct vs indirect
* direct - increase excitatory thalamic input to cortex * indirect - decrease excitatory thalamic input to cortex
62
Effect on motor activity - direct vs. indirect
* direct - turns UP motor activity * indirect - turns down motor activity
63
Where does the spinal cord begin and end?
* Begins at foramen magnum * Ends as conus medullaris at L1
64
How many spinal nerves are there?
* 31 pairs * 8 cervical spinal nerves * C1 - C7 exit above vertebrae of same #1 * 12 thoracic spinal nerves * 5 lumbar spinal nerves * 5 sacral spinal nerves * 1 Coccygeal * All other exit below vertebrae of same #
65
What are the functions of the spinal cord?
* Provides 2-way communication to & from brain * Brain talks to body & body talks to brain * Contains spinal reflex centers
66
What protection does the Spinal Cord have?
* Bone, meninges, & CSF (in subarachnoid space) * Cushion of fat & network of veins in epidural space * Denticulate ligaments - lateral extensions of pia mater that secure cord to dura mater * Dural & arachnoid mater extend to S2 * Cauda equina * Filum terminale
67
Parts of Gray Matter in Spinal Cord
* Ventral horns - somatic motor neurons ○ Ventral = motor * Lateral horns - only in thoracic & lumbar regions, sympathetic neurons * Only found T1-L2 * Dorsal horns - interneurons receiving somatic & visceral sensory input ○ Dorsal = sensory * Dorsal root ganglia - cell bodies of sensory neurons
68
Parts of White Matter in Spinal Cord
* Spinal tract = collections of axons w/ similar functions * Consists of bilateral tracts in 3 white columns (funiculi) * Ascending/sensory tracts - dorsal, lateral + ventral columns * Descending/motor tracts - lateral + central columns * Transverse tracts (commissural fibers) cross from one side to other
69
What are the Ascending Pathways?
* Dorsal column-medial lemniscal pathways (DCML) - thalamus * Spinothalamic pathways (anterolateral pathway) - thalamus * spinocerebellar tracts - terminate in cerebellum
70
Dorsal Column-Medial Lemniscal (DCML) Pathaways
* discriminative touch & vibrations * sensory ascedning pathway * ascends same side of body which it enters * crosses over in medulla * 2nd neuron enters thalamus * 3rd neuron to somatosensory cortex
71
Lateral Spinothalamic tract
* pain & temperature impulses * sensory ascending tract * 1st neuron in DRG, synapses & crosses over in dorsal horn where it enters * 2nd neuron ascends opposite side to thalamus * 3rd neuron to primary somatosensory cortex
72
Spinocerebellar tract
* subconscious proprioceptive info from trunk & lower limb to cerebellum * ONLY 2 NEURONS * doesn't go to thalamus, goes to cerebellum * ipsilateral projections
73
What are the Descending Pathways?
* Direct - corticospinal/pyramidal tract * Indirect - all the other ones NOTE: Involve 2 neurons: * Upper motor neurons - cortex to spinal cord * Lower motor neurons - spinal cord to skeletal muscle (ventral horn motor neurons)
74
Direct (corticospinal) Tract
* Impulses from pyramidal neurons in precentral gyri (primary motor cortex)pass through pyramidal tracts (upper motor neurons) * crossing over at medulla * Axons synapse w/ interneurons or ventral horn motor neurons (lower motor neurons) Regulates fast & fine (skilled) movement
75
Indirect (Extrapyramidal) system
* Pathways are complex & multisynaptic * Tectospinal tract - mediate head movements in response to visual stimuli (contralateral) * Vestibulospinal tract - maintain balance during standing & moving (ipsilateral) * Corticobulbar tract - motor to skeletal muscle of cranial nerves (both contralateral & ipsilateral)

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