Chapter 11

Question 1

Problem solving

Answer 1

used when you want to reach a specified goal; however, the solution is not immediately obvious because you are missing important information and/or it is not clear how to reach the goal

Question 2

What 3 components does every problem include?

Answer 2

1. the initial state
2. the goal state
3. the obstacles

Question 3

initial state

Answer 3

the situation at the beginning of the problem

Question 4

goal state

Answer 4

reached when you solve the problem

Question 5

obstacles

Answer 5

the restrictions that make it difficult to proceed from the initial state to the goal state

Question 6

Thinking

Answer 6

requires you to go beyond the information you were given, so that you can reach a goal; the goal may be a solution, a belief, or a decision

Question 7

Understanding

Answer 7

means that you have constructed a well-organized mental representation of the problem, based on both the information provided in the problem and your own previous experience

Question 8

Problem representation

Answer 8

refers to the way you translate the elements of the problem into a different format

Question 9

Matrix

Answer 9

a grid consisting of rows and columns; it shows all possible combinations of items

Question 10

Hierarchical tree diagram

Answer 10

a figure that uses a tree-like structure to show various possible options in a problem

Question 11

Situated cognition approach

Answer 11

we often use helpful information in our immediate environment to create spatial representations

Question 12

Embodied cognition approach

Answer 12

we often use our own body and our own motor actions, in order to express our abstract thoughts and knowledge

Question 13

Algorithm

Answer 13

a method that will always produce a solution to the problem, although the process can sometimes be inefficient

Question 14

Exhaustive search

Answer 14

one example of an algorithm in which you try out all possible answers using a specified system

Question 15

Analogy approach

Answer 15

you employ a solution to a similar, earlier problem to help you solve a new problem

Question 16

Problem isomorphs

Answer 16

a term used to refer to a set of problems that have the same underlying structures and solutions, but different specific details

Question 17

Surface features

Answer 17

specific objects and terms used in the question (obvious information)

Question 18

Structural features

Answer 18

the underlying core that they must understand in order to solve the problem correctly

Question 19

Means-ends heuristic

Answer 19

requires you to identify the “ends” (or final result) that you want and then figure out the “means” or methods that you will use to reach those ends

Question 20

General Problem Solver (GPS)

Answer 20

a program whose basic strategy is means-ends analysis. The goal of the GPS is to mimic the processes that normal humans use when they tackle these problems

Question 21

Hill-climbing heuristic

Answer 21

choosing the alternative that seems to lead most directly toward your goal

Question 22

Expertise

Answer 22

individual demonstrates consistently exceptional skill and performance on representative tasks for a particular area

Question 23

Parallel processing

Answer 23

handles two or more items at the same time

Question 24

Serial processing

Answer 24

handles only one item at a time

Question 25

Mental set

Answer 25

you keep trying the same solution you used in previous problems, even though you could solve the problem by using a different, easier method

Question 26

Fixed mindset

Answer 26

you believe that you possess a certain amount of intelligence and other skills, and no amount of effort can help you perform better

Question 27

Growth mindset

Answer 27

you believe that you can cultivate your intelligence and other skills; challenge yourself to perform better

Question 28

Functional fixedness

Answer 28

we tend to assign stable (or fixed) functions to an object; as a result, we fail to think about the features of this object that might be useful in helping us solve a problem

Question 29

Stereotype threat

Answer 29

if you belong to a group that is hampered by a negative stereotype–and you think about your membership in that group–your performance may suffer

Question 30

Insight problem

Answer 30

the problem initially seems impossible to solve, but then an alternative approach suddenly bursts into your consciousness. You immediately realize that your new solution is correct

Question 31

Noninsight problem

Answer 31

you solve the problem gradually, by using your memory, reasoning skills, and a routine set of strategies

Question 32

Creativity

Answer 32

requires solutions that are both novel and useful

Question 33

Divergent production

Answer 33

the number of different responses made to a test item

Question 34

Convergent production

Answer 34

asks the test-taker to supply a single, best response, and the researchers measure the quality of that response

Question 35

extrinsic motivation

Answer 35

motivation to work on a task–not because you find it enjoyable–but in order to earn a promised reward or to win a competition

Question 36

Intrinsic motivation

Answer 36

the motivation to work on tasks for their own sake, because you find them interesting, exciting, or personally challenging

Question 37

Self-efficacy

Answer 37

the belief that you have the ability to organize and carry out a specific task

Question 38

Perseverance

Answer 38

the ability to keep working on a task, even when you encounter obstacles