Deck 3 Flashcards
Multidirectional
Some dimensions expand and others shrink
Multidimensional
Has biological, cognitive, and socioemotional dimensions
Plastic
The capacity for change
Lifelong
Early adulthood is not the endpoint of development; no age period dominates development
Multidisciplinary
Various areas of study have an interest in the field of development through the life span
Contextual
All development occurs within a context, or setting (social, cultural, and historic factors)
Nature
Nature refers to an organism’s biological inheritance.
Nature Example
We walk before we talk, speak one word before two words, grow rapidly in infancy and less so in early childhood, experience a rush of sex hormones in puberty, reach the peak of our physical strength in late adolescence and early adulthood, and then physically decline.
Nurture
Nurture refers to an organism’s environmental experiences
Nurture Example
Experiences run the gamut from the individual’s biological environment (nutrition, medical care, drugs, and physical accidents) to the social environment (family, peers, schools, community, media, and culture)
Continuity
focuses on the degree to which the development involves a gradual, cumulative change
continuity example
An oak grows from a seedling to a giant oak, it becomes more of an oak - its development is continuous
discontinuity
focuses on the degree to which development involves distinct stages
Discontinuity example
as an insect grows from a caterpillar to a chrysalis to a butterfly, it passes through a sequence of stages in which change is qualitative rather than quantitatively different. Similarly, at some point a child moves from not being able to think abstractlyl about the world to being able to do so.
Stability
Debate about whether we become older renditions of our early experience
Stability Example
Many argue that if an individual is shy throughout life, this stability is due to heredity and possibly early experiences in which the infant or young child encountered considerable stress when interacting with people
Change
We develop into someone different from who we were at an earlier point in development
Change example
Developmentalists who emphasize change take the more optimistic view that later experiences can produce change. Recall that in the life-span perspective, plasticity, the potential for change, exists throughout the life span.
Freud’s Theories
Freud believed that people’s problems were the result of experiences early in life. He thought that as children grow up, their focus on pleasure and sexual impulses shifts from the mouth to the anus and eventually to the genitals. As a result, we go through five stages of psychosexual development: Oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.
Erikson’s Theory
Focuses on Psychosocial. Eight Stages of human development. Each stage consists of unique developmental task that confronts individuals with a crisis that must be resolved.
Trust versus mistrust
Erikson’s first psychosocial stage, which is experienced in the first year of life. The development of trust during infancy sets the stage for a lifelong expectation that the world will be a good and pleasant place to live.
Autonomy versus Shame and doubt
Erikson’s second stage. This stage occurs in late infancy and toddlerhodd ( 1-3 years) after gaining trust in their caregivers, infants begin to discover that their behavior is their own. They start to assert their sense of independence or autonomy. They realize their will. If Infants and toddlers are restrained too much or punished too harshly, they are likely to develop a sense of shame and doubt.
Initiative versus guilt
Erikson’s Third stage of development occurs during the preschool years. As preschool children encounter a widening social world, they face new challenges that require active purposeful, responsible behavior. Feelings of guilt may arise, though, if the child is irresponsible and is made to feel anxious.
Industry versus inferiority
Erikson’s fourth developmental stages, occurring approximately during the elementary school years. Children now need to direct their energy toward mastering knowledge and intellectual skills. The negative outcome is that the child may develop a sense of inferiority – feeling incompetent and unproductive.
Identity Versus identity confusion
Erikson’s fifth developmental stage that occurs during adolescent years. If adolescents explore roles in a healthy manner and arrive at a positive path to follow in life, then they achieve a positive identity, if they do not, identity confusion reigns.
Intimacy versus isolation
Erikson’s sixth developmental stage, which occurs during early adulthood. Individuals face the developmental task of forming intimate relationships. If young adults form healthy friendships and an intimate relationship with another, intimacy will be achieved; if not, isolation will result.
Generativity versus stagnation
Erikson’s seventh developmental stage that occurs during middle adulthood. By generativity Erikson means primarily a concern for helping the younger generation to develop and lead useful lives. The feeling of having done nothing to help the next generation is stagnation.
Integrity versus despair
Erikson’s eighth and final stage of development which occurs during late adulthood. During this stage a person reflects on the past. If the person’s life review reveals a life well spent, integrity will be achieved; if not the retrospective glances will likely yield doubt or gloom.
Piaget’s cognitive Developmental Theory
Children go through four stages of cognitive development as they actively construct their understanding of the world. Two processes underlie this cognitive construction of the world: organization and adaptation. To make sense of our world we organize our experiences.
Sensorimotor stage
Piaget’s first stage that lasts from birth to 2 years old. Infants in this stage construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences (Such as seeing and hearing) with physical, motoric actions
The preoperational Stage
Piaget’s second stages that lasts from 2-7 years of age. Children begin to go beyond simply connecting sensory information with physical actions and represent the world with words, images, and drawings. They are not able to internalize mental actions
Concrete operational stage
Piaget’s third stage that lasts from 7-11 years of age. Children can perform operations that involved objects, and they can reason logically when the reasoning can be applied to specific or concrete examples. concrete operational thinkers cannot imagine the steps necessary to complete an algebraic equation, which is too abstract for thinking at this stage of development.
The formal operational stage
Piaget’s fourth and final stage that occurs between 11-15 years of age and continues through adulthood. Individuals move beyond concrete experiences and begin to think in abstract and more logical terms. as part of thinking more abstractly, adolescents develop images of ideal circumstances.
Vygotsky’s theory
A sociocultural cognitive theory that emphasizes how culture and social interaction guide cognitive development. A child’s development depends on social and cultural activities and social interactions with more skilled adults.
Information-processing theory
Individuals manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it. Unlike Piaget’s theory, but like Vygotsky’s theory, This theory does not describe development as stage-like but as gradual increase capacity for processing information.
<p>Operant Conditioning Theory</p>
<p>the theory that people learn to perform behaviors that lead to desired consequences and learn not to perform behaviors that lead to undesired consequences.
A behavior followed by a rewarding stimulus is more likely to recur, whereas a behavior followed by a punishing stimulus is less likely to recur.</p>
Social Cognitive Theory
The view of psychologists who emphasize behavior, environment, and cognition as the key factors in development.
Ecological Theory
Bronfenbrenner’s theory that human development is shaped by five environmental systems: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem.
Microsystem
The setting in which the individual lives. These contexts include the person’s family, peers, school, and neighborhood.
Mesosystem
connections between microsystems
Exosystem
consists of social settings in which the individual does not have an active role and the individual’s immediate context. Ex. A husband’s experience at home may be influenced by a mother’s experiences at work.
Macrosystem
The culture in which individuals live.
Ethnology
study of humankind; study of the different races of human beings;
How does Erikson’s theory differ from Freud’s?
Freud’s theory was sexual in nature, Erikson’s focused on social and human interaction. Feud believed that our basic personaility was formed within the first five years of our life. Erikson believed change occurred throughout the lifespan.
Trust vs. Mistrust occurs when? Looks like what?
0-1 Infant.
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Age and description
1-3 toddlers
Initiative vs guilt Age and description
3-5 preschool
Age and Description
6- 11/12 Elementary
Age and description
Adolescence
Age and Example
20-30 Early Adulthood
Age and Example
30-50 Middle adulthood
Age and Example
60+ Late adulthood
age of sensorimotor stage
birth to 2 years
age of preoperational stage
2-7 years
age of concrete operational stage
11-Jul
age of formal operational stage
11- through adulthood
Descriptive research and when it’s used
Observe and record behavior. By itself, descriptive research cannot prove what causes some phenomenon, but it can reveal important information about people’s behavior.
When its used
Research that attempts to determine the strength of the relationship between two or more events or characteristics.
Experimental and when its used
A carefully regulated procedure in which one or more of the factors believed to influence the behvaior being studied are manipulated while all other factors are help constant
Case study and when it’s used
An in-depth look at a single individual. Provides information about one person’s experiences
Cross-sectional and when it’s used
A research strategy in which individuals of different ages are compared at one time. Can be completed in a short amount of time.
Longitudinal approach and when it’s used
A research strategy in which the same indviduals are studied over a period of time, usually several years or more.
Dominant Gene
One gene of a pair always exerts its effects, overrides the potential influence of the recessive gene
Recessive Gene
Exerts its influence only if the two genes of a pair are both recessive
Genotype
a person’s genetic heritage; the actual genetic material
Phenotype
the set of observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment.
Down Syndrome
Chromosomal abnormality
XYY syndrome
Chromosomal abnormality
Fragile X syndrome
Chromosomal abnormality
Sickle-cell anemia
A genetic abnormality that impairs the functioning of the body’s red blood cells. Red blood cells carry oxygen to the body’s other cells and are usually disk-shaped. In sickle-cell anemia, a recessive gene causes the red blood cell to become a hook-shaped “sickle” that cannot carry oxygen properly and dies quickly. As a result, the body’s cells do not receive adequate oxygen, causing anemia and early death.
Diabetes
Genetic abnormality
Spina Bifida
Genetic abnormality
What is the goal of the filed of behavioral genetics?
The field that seeks to discover the influence of heredity and environment on individual differences in human traits and development. They try and figure out what is responsible for the differences among people, to what extent people vary because of differences in genes, environment, or a combination of these factors
How do the findings of adoption studies and twin studies help us to understand the role of heredity and environment?
Some of these interactions are heredity-environment correlations, which means that individuals’ genes may be systematically related to the types of environments to which they are exposed. In a sense, individuals “inherit,” seek out, or “construct” environments that may be related or linked to genetic “propensities.”
passive genotype-environment correlations
occur because biological parents, who are genetically related to the child, provide a rearing environment for the child
Evocative Genotype- environment correlation
Occurs because a child’s genetically influenced characteristics elicit certain types of environments. For Example, active smiling children receive more social stimulation than passive, quiet children do.
active (niche-picking) genotype-environment correlations
Occurs when children seek out environments that they find compatible and stimulating. Niche-picking refers to finding a setting that is uited to one’s genetically influenced abilities. Children select from their surrounding environment certain aspects that they respond to, learn about, or ignore. Their active selections of environments are related to their particular genotype.
The Germinal Period
first two weeks after fertilization, during which the zygote moves down to the uterus and begins to implant in the lining
The embryonic period
the period from two to eight weeks after fertilization, during which the major organs and structures of the organism develop.
The fetal period
the time from about eight weeks after conception until the birth of the child
Teratogen
Tera meaning monster. Any agent that causes a birth defect.
Why do some infants exhibit effects of exposure to a teratogen while others do not (3 main factors that influence extent of impact)?
Dose - The greater the dose of an agent, such as a drug, the greater the effect
Effects of nicotine on a dev eloping embryo
Preterm briths
Effects of alcohol on a developing embryo
Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder
Effects of cocaine on developing embryo
Reduced birth weight, length, and head circumference
cephalocaudal pattern
Developmental sequence in which the earliest growth always occurs at the top - the head - with physical growth in size, weight, and feature differentiation gradually working from top to bottom.
proximodistal pattern
Developmental sequence in which growth starts at the center of the body and moves toward the extremities.
reflex
Built-in reactions to stimuli that govern the newborn’s movements, which are automatic and beyond the newborn’s control
Identify 2 examples of reflexes that disappear several months after birth
Rooting reflex: A newborn’s built-in reaction that occurs when the infant’s cheek is stroked or the side of the mouth is touched. In response, the infant turns his or her head toward the side that was touched, in an apparent effort to find something to suck
Identify 2 examples of reflexes that persist throughout life
Coughing
What is the main idea of the dynamic system of view of development
Infants assemble motor skills for perceiving and acting. Notice that perception and action are coupled, according to this theory. To develop motor skills, infants must perceive something in their environment that motivates them to act and use their perceptions to fine tune their movements. Motor Skills represent solutions to the infant’s goals
Gross and Fine motor development at 3 months of age
Gross: Lifting their head, sitting up with support
Gross and fine motor development at 6 months
Gross: Support some weight with legs. Roll over. Sit without support
Gross and Fine motor development age 9 months
Gross:Stand with support. Pull self to stand
Gross and fine motor development at age 12 months
Gross: Walking and standing independently.
How are sensation and perception related?
Sensation is the receiving of information on a sensory receptor, like the ears, tongue, skin or nostrils. perception is the interpretation of that sense.
What do infants prefer to look at?
Patterns, like a face, piece of printed matter, or a bull’s-eye. Saturated colors such as royal blue over pale blue.
What do infants prefer to hear?
Babies typically love what is familiar to them. Which includes mother’s voice (typically higher pitched) and human faces.
Schemes (Piaget)
actions or mental representations that organize knowledge
Accommodation (Piaget)
adjustment of their schemes to take new information and experiences into account.
Assimilation (Piaget)
When children use their existing schemes to deal with new information or experiences
Object permanence
The Piagetian term for understanding that objects and events continue to exist, even when they cannot directly be seen, heard, or touched.
According to Piaget, from birth to age 24 months infants are _____ stage of development
in the sensorimotor
Order of the five communication behaviors of children
Before birth – Crying
What is the difference between a universal linguist and a language specific listener?
Universal Linguist refers to crying, cooing, babbling, which all occur within the first six months of life. Infants are “ citizens of the world” they recognize when sounds change most of the time, no matter what language the syllables come from.
Temperament
individual differences in behavioral styles, emotions, and characteristic ways of responding
What factors influence infant temperament
Biological Foundations and experiences
Goodness of fit
the match between a child’s temperament and the environmental demands the child must cope with
What are typical infant behaviors that illustrate the trust versus mistrust stage of Erikson’s theory
Sense of self
What are typical infant behaviors that illustrate the autonomy vs shame/doubt stage of Erikson’s theory?
Independence
