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PSYCHOLOGY 104 > CHAPTER 6 > Flashcards

CHAPTER 6 Flashcards

1
Q

Consciousness

A

conscious awareness of oneself and one’s environment

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2
Q

Gerhard Roth (2004)

A
  • consciousness comprises many states; these lie on a continuum from coma to sleep to alertness.
  • Roth defines two forms:
  • background stream
  • actual stream
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3
Q

William James (1892)

A

-first proposed the concept of a “stream” of consciousness

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4
Q

background stream

A

DEFINITION: long-lasting sensory experiences

  • sense of personal identity
  • awareness of one’s body; control of body and intellect
  • location in space/time
  • level of reality of experience; fantasy vs. reality
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5
Q

actual stream

A

DEFINITION:concrete, often rapidly alternating states of awareness.

  • awareness of processes in one’s body and environment
  • cognitive activities, emotions, feelings, and needs (e.g., hunger)
  • wishes, intentions, and acts of will
  • sharpened by processes of attention
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6
Q

which kinds of studies were used to implicate mutable areas of the _____

A

PET/FMRI studies were used to implicate mutable areas of the association cortex for these two aspects of consciousness

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7
Q

David J. Chalmers (1995):

A
  • defines two kinds of problems in understanding consciousness
  1. the “easy problems”
  2. the “ hard problem”
  • Chalmers is skeptical that neuroscience can provide answers to these “hard” questions
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8
Q
  1. the “easy problems”
A

are ones that psychology and neuroscience are trying to answer (and are actually quite challenging):

  • How can we discriminate sensory stimuli and react to them appropriately?
  • How does the brain integrate information and use this to control behaviour?
  • How is it that we can verbalize our internal states?
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9
Q
  1. the “hard problem”
A

Is the question of how physical processes in the brain give rise to subjective experience:

  • Why is it that when our brains process light of a certain wavelength, we have a particular experience (of red, for example)?
  • Why do we have any experience at all?
  • Could not an unconscious automaton have performed the same tasks just as well?
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10
Q

visual form agnosia

A

person cannot visually perceive global structure (e.g., object identity, shape, orientation), despite intact low-level sensory processing (e.g., acuity, colour, and brightness discrimination); likely due to a failure of binding at an early stage of visual processing

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11
Q

patient D.F. had diffuse damage to occipitotemporal cortex

A

had visual form agnosia

  • could not recognize, discriminate, or copy complex visual forms, like shapes
  • but (to her own surprise) she could accurately reach for and grasp objects
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12
Q

implication of visual form agnosia

A

holistic visual perception (“what”) is different from visually guided action (“how”)

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13
Q

visual object agnosia

A

person cannot visually identify objects, even though they can “see” and describe them

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14
Q

Oliver Sacks’ patient Dr. P. had damage in….

A

(visual object agnosia)

  • Oliver Sacks’ patient Dr. P. had damage in visual association cortex
  • could copy pictures, but not identify them
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15
Q

implication of visual object agnosia

A

visual perception and identification are different processes

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16
Q

blindsight

A

person has no visual experience (i.e., they are blind), but can perform visually guided tasks better than chance level

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17
Q

patient G.Y

A

(blindsight)
had left primary visual cortex removed

  • could correctly guess which way a line was moving and could grasp objects in his blind field
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18
Q

implications of blindsight

A

there must be another visual pathway that bypasses the primary visual cortex; some aspects of vision are not conscious

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19
Q

circadian rhythm

A

body’s biological sleep/wake cycle

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20
Q

Kleitman & Richardson (1938)

A
  • stayed in Mammoth Cave in Kentucky for 33 days
  • went to sleep and woke up 1 hour later each day
  • confound: amount of artificial light exposure
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21
Q

Czeisler et al. (1999)

A
  • carefully controlled amount of light exposure in a lab
  • free-running circadian rhythm found to be 24 hours, 11 minutes long
  • optic nerve connects tosuprachiasmatic nuclei(SCN) of the hypothalamus, reset by light each day
  • SCN inhibits pineal gland from producingmelatonin, the “sleep hormone”
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22
Q

Brain/muscle activity measured with electroencephalogram (EEG)

A

electrodes pasted to scalp/face measure activity.

  • measure beta and alpha waves.
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23
Q

beta waves

A
  • occur in awake, active state; irregular, low amplitude, high frequency.
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24
Q

Alpha waves

A

occur in awake, relaxed state; medium amplitude, medium frequency

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25
Q

how many stages of sleep are there

A

4

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26
Q

stage 1

A

Light sleep, lasts 2-10 min.; transition period

  • breathing, brain waves slow down
  • alpha waves;theta waves
  • may experience hallucinations/images, sensation of falling, hypnic jerks
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27
Q

stage 2

A

deeper sleep; 15-20 min.

  • irregular activity;sleep spindle: bursts of activity correlated with memory consolidation
  • k-complex
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28
Q

k-complex

A

brief spike of very high-amplitude activity; can occur in response to sounds (knocking?) on the first presentation, or hearing one’s name

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29
Q

stage 3

A

~15 min.

• somedelta waves

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30
Q

delta waves

A

high amplitude, low frequency

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31
Q

theta waves

A

irregular, medium amplitude, slower frequency (4-8 Hz)

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32
Q

stage 4

A

deepest sleep, ~15 min.
• delta waves predominate; people difficult to awaken
s

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33
Q

Stages 3 & 4 are called…

A

slow-wave sleep because of the delta wave

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34
Q

You then return through stages 3 & 2, which is followed by

A

REM(rapid eye movement) sleep

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35
Q

REM(rapid eye movement) sleep

A
  • sawtooth waves occur; similar to beta waves (REM is called (“paradoxical sleep”)
  • heart rate increases, irregular breathing, genitals become aroused, brainstem paralyzes muscles
  • dreams experienced
  • REM rebound
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36
Q

dreams experienced

A

have narrative form; often emotional

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37
Q

REM rebound

A

if REM is interrupted, one returns to it much more quickly and stays in it longer on subsequent nights

38
Q

sleep architecture

A

Cycling through sleep stages continues; sleep cycle ~90 minutes

39
Q

Restoration theory

A
  • Adaptive significance: helps one recuperate physically/mentally
  • Energy conserved; growth hormone released during sleep
  • Amount of sleep is correlated with strength of immune system
40
Q

Preservation and protection Theory

A

adaptive significance: helps one avoid dangers and predators that are hard to see in the dark

41
Q

Learning & Memory

A
  • Adaptive significance: sleep consolidates recent memories
  • People are more than twice as likely to discover insight into a numerical cognitive task after 8 hours of sleep (Wagner et al., 2004)
42
Q

Sleep Deprivation

A
  • physical fatigue is different from sleepiness
  • how much sleep do you need? (Maas and colleagues, 1998)
  • don’t need alarm clock to wake up
  • don’t struggle to get out of bed
  • not tired/irritable during the day
  • don’t fall asleep watching TV
  • sleep depends on culture and age
43
Q

effects of deprivation

A
  • intense sleepiness (worse at night; maximal at 62 hours)
  • reduced immune system function (3× more likely to get a cold)
  • psychotic symptoms
  • decreased cognitive functioning, including impaired decision making and memory impairment (“recovery” sleep does not help)
44
Q

Stanley Coren (1996)

A
  • Teens need 10 hours of sleep; get 7-7½
  • Deprivation affects IQ scores: for each hour under 8, 1-2 IQ points lost; effects may be cumulative
  • Traffic accidents in Canada increased by 7% after spring time change; 7% lower after fall time change
45
Q

dyssomnias

A

disturbances in the amount, quality, or timing of sleep

46
Q

insomnia

A

difficulty initiating or maintaining sleep for at least 1 month, not caused by any other disorder

  • affects 10-15% of population
  • sleeping pills reduce REM and slow-wave sleep; sleep less satisfying; leads to

vicious circle:
can’t sleep==> sleeping pill==> dependence

47
Q

better plan for sleep hygiene

A

» sleep on a regular schedule (even on weekends)

» only consume caffeine in morning/early afternoon, and don’t eat before bedtime

» don’t exercise in evening; just relax before bedtime

» limit light exposure in the evening (especially blue light/screens)

» don’t do anything in bed but sleep

48
Q

narcolepsy

A

symptoms include excessive daytime sleepiness, vivid nightmares, cataplexy (loss of muscle control, often triggered by intense emotions)

  • in narcolepsy, REM occurs at sleep onset; periods of REM and non-REM (NREM) sleep are disturbed
  • normally treated with stimulants, nap scheduling
    affects 0.1% of population
49
Q

sleep apnea

A

cessation of breathing during sleep, which causes sleeper to awaken to breathe

50
Q

central

A

breathing control centres in the brain interrupted; can be caused by depressants/sedatives

51
Q

obstructive

A

physical blockage of airflow; can be caused by upper respiratory infection; linked to obesity

52
Q

what the most common method of measuring consciousness

A

self report, BUT behavioural measures are also used.

53
Q

parasomnia

A

sleep disorders involving abnormal or unnatural movements, behaviors, emotions, perceptions, or dreams

54
Q

somniloquy(“sleep talking”)

A
  • words/gibberish spoken during sleep
  • occurs during brief arousals from NREM sleep, or during REM
  • affects 50% of children, 5% of adults
55
Q

somnambulism(“sleepwalking”)

A
  • walking, eating, bathing, driving while asleep (eyes are open); no memory for the episode; no response if spoken to
  • occurs in slow-wave sleep (not acting out a dream)
  • affects 18% of population; more common in children
  • not indicative of psychological problem
56
Q

night terrors

A
  • person appears terrified and cannot regain consciousness (difficult to awaken); is not a nightmare
  • occurs in slow-wave sleep; may last 10-20 minutes
  • mostly affects children (about 3%); may be linked to emotional stress
57
Q

Dreams

A
  • more activity in cortical areas associated with visual imagery, movement perception, and emotion; also in pons
  • less activity in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, associated with volitional action and evaluation of what is logical and socially appropriate
58
Q

Psychoanalytic view(Freud, 1900)

A

wish fulfillment

  • dreams are “the royal road to the unconscious”
59
Q

manifest content

A

surface content of dream, based on preoccupations of life; safe version of…

60
Q

latent content

A

underlying, unconscious wishes and desires that are too dangerous to admit

61
Q

Physiological view(Hobson & McCarley, 1977)

A

activation-synthesis model

  • dreams provide otherwise dormant brain with stimulation
  • dreams are cognitive interpretations of random signals
62
Q

evidence for Physiological view(Hobson & McCarley, 1977)

A

greater activity in visual and emotional brain regions; less activity in lateral prefrontal cortex (logical reasoning, decision making, and working memory)

63
Q

Cognitive view(Cartwright, 1991; Winson, 1990)

A

Learning/memory/problem solving

  • dreams work to consolidate memories & learned experiences; help solve problems
64
Q

evidence for Cognitive view(Cartwright, 1991; Winson, 1990)

A

REM sleep enhanced learning of logic games, foreign language acquisition, problem solving, studying

65
Q

Psychoactive Drugs

A
  • affect perceptions and/or moods

- may enter brain by crossingblood-brain barrier

66
Q

blood-brain barrier

A

blood vessels in brain less porous; closely surrounded by supporting cells

67
Q

Stimulants

A

increase neural activity, alertness, body functions; may elevate mood

68
Q

amphetamines

A
  • produce alertness & euphoria.
69
Q

amphetamine psychosis

A

hallucinations and paranoid delusions

70
Q

downsides to amphetamines

A
  • amphetamine psychosis
  • controversial treatment for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: methylphenidate (Ritalin®)
  • interfere with NE & DA reuptake
71
Q

MDMA(3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, “ecstacy”)

A
  • acts as stimulant and hallucinogen; causes general sense of openness, empathy, energy, euphoria, and well-being
72
Q

downsides toMDMA(3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine

A
  • impairs attention, concentration, learning, and memory
  • stimulates secretion and inhibits reuptake of large amounts of 5-HT, as well as DA and NE
  • chronic high doses lead to destruction of terminal buttons of 5-HT neurons
73
Q

cocaine

A
  • initial “rush” lasts minutes-hours
74
Q

downsides to cocaine

A

“crash,” paranoia, convulsions, heart failure, psychosis

  • blocks reuptake of NE, DA, & 5-HT
75
Q

nicotine

A
  • increases heart rate, BP; decreases emotional reactivity
76
Q

downsides to nicotine

A
  • more addictive than heroin; tobacco contains several dozen known carcinogens
  • activates nicotinic ACh receptors
77
Q

caffeine

A
  • increases heart rate, BP
  • antagonist for the inhibitory neuromodulator adenosine; increases dopamine levels; also stimulates pituitary gland to secrete hormones which cause the adrenal glands to produce more adrenaline
78
Q

Depressants/Tranquilizers

A

decrease neural activity, body functions, anxiety

79
Q

benzodiazepines

A
  • antianxiety drugs; GABA agonists
80
Q

barbiturates

A
  • “hypnotic”/sedative; GABA agonists
81
Q

alcohol

A
  • reduces judgment, decreases inhibitions; disrupts processing of experiences into long-term memory
  • GABA receptor agonist, and glutamate receptor antagonist
  • does not kill brain cells, but damages dendrites, which may be repaired with abstinence.
82
Q

Opioids/Narcotics:

A

produce feelings of euphoria, analgesia
•oxycodone(OxyContin®),fentanyl,morphine,heroin:
like endorphins; inhibit production of endogenous opioids

83
Q

downsides to opcodes/ narcotics

A
  • dependence, respiratory depression

- attach to opioid receptors, which reduce GABA, which normally inhibits DA release

84
Q

Hallucinogens

A

distort perceptions, moods

  • LSD
85
Q

LSD

A
  • (lysergic acid diethylamide)
  • only a few micrograms needed for a “trip”; lasts 6-12 hours
  • CIA’s Project MKUltra used LSD on people to find if it could turn them into “robots agents”
86
Q

THC

A
  • (tetrahydrocannabinol)
  • found in leaves of hemp plant (cannabis/marijuana/hashish)
  • effects range from mild euphoria; to perceptual and time distortions; to hallucinations, delusions, and distortions of body image (depending on dose)
87
Q

downsides to THC

A

» disrupts short-term memory, impairs reaction time, judgment, and peripheral vision

» long-term use of marijuana can trigger onset of psychosis and accelerate development of schizophrenia

» cannabis contains 50% more carcinogens than tobacco smoke
- acts like anandamide, an endogenous cannabinoid

88
Q

antipsychotics

A

remove symptoms of psychosis

89
Q

tricyclics (TCAs)

A
  • may inhibit reuptake of NE and 5-HT
90
Q

monoamine oxidase inhibitors(MAOIs)

A
  • inhibit enzyme that breaks down 5-HT, NE, or DA (==>agonist)
91
Q

selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors(SSRIs)

A
  • bind to serotonin transport (SERT) proteins.
    • there is little evidence that depression is caused by low levels of serotonin (are headaches caused by low levels of aspirin?)

PSYCHOLOGY 104 (10 decks)

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