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Revision lectures (Year 1) > Body Logistics (13-22) > Flashcards

Body Logistics (13-22) Flashcards

1
Q

multi-potent haemotopoietic stem cells differentiate into

A

common myeloid and lymph progenitor cells

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2
Q

which hormone stimulates myeloid progenitor cells to differentiate into erythrocytes

A

erythropoietin

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3
Q

which hormone stimulates myeloid progenitor cells to differentiate into thrombocytes

A

thrombopoietin

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4
Q

which hormone stimulates myeloid progenitor cells to differentiate into T and B cells

A

interleukins

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5
Q

which factor stimulates myeloid progenitor cells to differentiate into granulocytes

A

Granulocyte-colony stimulating factor (G-CSF)

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6
Q

what releases erythropoietin

A

the kidneys

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7
Q

when do the kidney release erythropoietin

A

in response to hypoxia –> leading to increased RBC production

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8
Q

haemopoeisis refers to

A

production ion blood cells in the bone marrows

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9
Q

erythrocytes

A

carry oxygen bound to haemoglobin (made of two a and two B chains) to respiring tissue

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10
Q

how long to RBC survive

A

120 days before being broken down by the liver or spleen

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11
Q

neutrophils

A

multi-lobed nucleus and small granules - travel to site of infection via chemotaxis and perform phagocytosis - cytokines such as G-CSF increase neutrophil production and chemotaxis

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12
Q

eosinophils

A

bi-lobed nucleus and release cytotoxic enzymes associated with allergic reactions i.e. asthma and hayfever - helminth infections

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13
Q

basophils

A

have large dark purple granules which contain histamine and heparin

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14
Q

monocytes

A

large cells with folded nucleus and grey/blue cytoplasm. They mature into macrophages and perform phagocytosis

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15
Q

lymphocytes

A

can either be T cells (T-helper or T- cytotoxic) or B cells Small cells with large round nucleus

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16
Q

platelets produced from

A

megakaryocytes in bone marrow - involves clotting cascade

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17
Q

cartilage is a type of

A

connective tissue

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18
Q

cartilage consists of

A

chrondorpcytes

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19
Q

outline how chondrocytes are produced

A

fibroblasts –> chondroblasts –> chondrocytes

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20
Q

chondrocytes are surrounded by

A

a dense network of type II collagen and elastic fibres embedded in a gel-like matrix

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21
Q

what makes cartilage highly resilient (can bear weight and is flexible)

A

a dense network of type II collagen and elastic fibres embedded in a gel-like matrix (ground substance)

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22
Q

is cartilage vascular or avascular

A

avascular

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23
Q

how can cartilage be avascular

A

the perichondrium surrounding the cartilage can supply the chondrocytes with oxygen and nutrients

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24
Q

can adult cartilage repair itself

A

no- chondrocytes are fully differentiated- lost nucleus so can’t undergo mitosis

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25
Q

what is cartilage replaced with when damaged

A

fibrous scar

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26
Q

what is ground substance in cartilage formed of

A

glycosaminoglycan - hyaluronic acid

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27
Q

hyaluronic acid allows

A

resistance to compression without affecting flexibility

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28
Q

what covers most cartilage

A

a connective tissue called perichondrium - it is avasucalr and its vessels supply nutrients to the cartilage and cells (chondrocytes)

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29
Q

name 3 types of cartilage

A

hyaline elastic fibrous

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30
Q

hyaline cartilage found

A
  1. Articulating surfaces (joints) 2. Epiphyseal growth plates 3. Framework for feral development
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31
Q

what is found int he matrix of hyaline cartilage

A

proteoglycans, hyaluronic acid and type II collagen

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32
Q

how is hyaline cartilage produced

A
  1. Fibroblast move from he top to the bottom as they differentiate into chondrocytes (appositional growth) 2. Chdonrocytes at the bottom then deposit further matrix (interstitial growth) 3. cell apoptosis releasing matrix
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33
Q

elastic cartilage

A

matrix contains more elastic fibres giving it more elasticity

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34
Q

where is elastic cartilage found

A

1) other ear (pinna) 2) epilgottis 3) eustachian tube

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35
Q

fibrous cartilage cells

A

made up of chondroblasts and fibroblast - combinations of a dense regular tissue and hyaline cartilage

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36
Q

fibrous cartilage acts as a

A

shock absorber

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37
Q

fibrous cartilage found

A

1) Intervertebral discs 2) menisci (knee) 3) pubic symphysis

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38
Q

ways bone is produced

A

endochondrial ossification intramembranous ossification

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39
Q

where does endochondrial ossification occur

A

all bones except flat bones

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40
Q

outline endochondrial ossification

A

1) intake cartilage model 2) collar of periosteal appears in the shaft 3) central cartilage calcifies and nutrient artery penetrates, supplying bone and depositing osteogenic cells. (primary ossification centre formed) 4) Medulla becomes cancellous bone 5) Cartilage forms epiphyseal growth plates 6) epiphyses develop secondary centres of ossification 7) Epiphyses ossify and growth plates continue to move apart, lengthening bone 8) epiphyseal growth plates replaced by bone 9) hyaline articular cartilage persists

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41
Q

draw and label basic structure of bone

A
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42
Q
A
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43
Q

endochondral ossification occurs in

A

all boens except flat bones

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44
Q

osteoblasts

A

deposit osteoid

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45
Q

osteoclasts

A

release H+ ions and lysosomal enzymes to resorb bones

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46
Q

osteoblasts stuck in their own matrix

A

osteocytes

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47
Q

intramembranous ossification occurs in

A

flat bones

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48
Q

intramembranous ossification process

A
  1. mesenchymal stem cells form a tight cluster called a nidus)
  2. MSC becomes osteoprogenitor cells which then become osteoblast
    3) osteoblasts lay down Type 1 collagen (osteoid)
    4) osteoid minerlases to form rudimentary bone spicules
    5) spicules join to form trabeculae which merge to form cancellosu bone
    6) this is replaced by lamellae of mature compact bone
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49
Q
A
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50
Q

cancellosu bone

A

formas a network of fine bony columns or plates to combine strengths with lightnesss

  • spaces are filled with bone marrow
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51
Q

compact bone

A

forms the external surfaces of boen and compirse 80% of the bodys skeletal body mass

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52
Q

compact bone is arranged in rings of bone called osteons

  • within the osteons are made up lamellae
A
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53
Q

what runs down the osteon

A

haversian canal

54
Q

haversian canal

A

runs vertically down the osteon- supplying the bone with blood vessels and lymphasti vessels

55
Q
A
56
Q

the volkmanns canal

A

runs horizontally between osteons

-supplying blood vessels and lymphatics

57
Q

ar ehaversian and volkmanns canals found in spongy bone

A

no

58
Q

cortical bone

A

same as compact

59
Q

outline bone fracture repair

A
  1. a blood clot (haematoma) forms giving ris eto a pro-callus of granualtion tissue (where fibroblasts release collagen)
  2. granulation tissue turns into fibrocarilaginous callus in which bony trabeculae develop
  3. endochondral and itnramembranous ossification give rise to a bony callus of spongy bone
  4. Cancelleous bone is now remoddels into compact bone in the cortical region (outward)
60
Q

osteoporosis

A

a metbaolic disorder where the mass of mienralised bone decrease

  • bone can no longer provide mehcnaical support
  • loss of trabecular bone is what icnreases suceptibility to fracture
61
Q

trabecular bone

A

also called cancellous bone, is porous bone composed of trabeculated bone tissue. It can be found at the ends of long bones like the femur, where the bone is actually not solid but is full of holes connected by thin rods and plates of bone tissue

62
Q

osteoporosis occurs due to

A
  1. excessive bone reabsorption (increased osteoclast function)
  2. Decreeased boen formation (decreased osetoblast function)
63
Q

how many types of osteoprosis

A

2- primary (2) and secondary (1)

64
Q

type 1 primary osteoporosis occurs

A

in post-menopausal woemn

  • due to increase in osteoclast number, a result of oestrogen withdrawal
65
Q

type 2 primary osteoporosis

A

occurs in elderly people of both genders (senile osteoporosis)

  • ocurs due to decreased osteoblast function
66
Q

risk factors for osteoporosis

A

Genetic: peak bone mass higher in afro caribbean than caucasian and asians

Insuficicnet callcium itnake

Insufficient vitamin D

Exercise (immobiliasation)

Smoking

67
Q

reocmmended calcium intake per day

A

800mg/ day

68
Q

insufficient vitamin D itnkae due to

A

renal failure or inadequate exposure to sunlight

69
Q

Where is the most fluid pushed out of the capilalry

A

at the ateriol end due to hight hydrostatic pressure

70
Q

when gluid is pushed out of the capillary it becomes

A

interstitual fluid

71
Q

when and why does intenristial fluid move back into the capillaries

A

at the venule end due to low hydrostatic pressur ena dhigh onctoic pressure (e.g. plasma protien albumin)

72
Q

what happens tot he remaianing intersitila fluid that is nopt reabsorbed back into the capilalry at the evnule end

A

drains into lymphatic vessels which run alongside capillaries

73
Q

walls of lymphatic vessels contains …

A

mslal flaps whcih opens when pressure increases e.g. when itnerisital fluid is building up

–> allows the excess intersitial fluid to move into the lympahtic vessel and be drained

74
Q

lymph is pushed …… gravity by ….. and …..

A

agaisnt gravity by muscles or arterial pulsation

75
Q

what prvent backflow of lymph

A

valves (like veins)

76
Q

the right lymphatic duct

A

draisn lumph fromt he right arm and upper right part of the torso intot he internal jugular vein

77
Q

the alrge thoracic duct

A

takes lymph from the rest of the body and drains into the subclavian vein

78
Q

lymoh nodes ahve a similar shape to

A

kidneys

79
Q

describe how lumph enters lymph nodes

A
  1. lymph enters lymph nodes via afferent lymphatic vessels found ont he convex surface
  2. Lymph leaves the nodes through afferent lymphatic vessels which exit the hilum (concave)
80
Q

where are the gemrianl centres from and what do they contain

A

on the outer regions of the node

-cotnained follicular dendiritc cells which are invovled in antigen presentationa nd activation of B cells

81
Q

the spleen

A

largerst lympahtic organ with rich blood supply (v red)

82
Q

spleen 2 main functions

A

1) Immune fucntion- includes antigen presentation by APCs and proliferation of B and T cells
2) Haematopoietic function- includes destruction of old RBCs anf retrieval of iron from Hb

83
Q

what happens to the spleen inr esponse to systemic infectiosn and when do lymph nodes enlarge

A

the spleen enlarges in response to systmeic infections e.g. malaria

Lymph nodes enlarge in repsosne to localised infection

84
Q

the thymus sits

A

infront of the heart and behind the sternum ontop of the trachea

85
Q

the thymus is involved in the

A

maturation of T cells - THMIC CELL EDUCTION

86
Q

the thymus is fully functional at birth but turns into ….

A

fat by early teens

87
Q

summarise the immune response

A

1) first line of defence is macrophage sna dneutrophils
2) they destory pathogens via phagocytosis
3) if these fail they present antigens on their surface and revael to lumph nodes as APCs
4) activation of humal immunity (B cells differntiate to plasma cells and secrete specufuc antibodies)
5) Acitvation oc cell emdiated imunity (acitvates T kills cells, T helper cell and T memory cells

88
Q
A
89
Q

oedema is the

A

accumulation of excess watery fluids in cell tissues or serous cavities

90
Q

if lymphartic vessels or lymphn nodes are obstrucuted

A

can lead to an accumulation of lymph- lymphoedema

91
Q

lymoh is

A

protien rich and fibroblast proliferation causes this fluid to harden–> making swelling non pitting

92
Q

which type of cause of oedma leads to pitting swelling

A

heart failure- low protein contnet

93
Q

the two arms of a nervous system

A

CNS and PNS

94
Q

parts of the CNS

A

braina and spinal cord 9connects brain and peripheral NS)

95
Q

PNS made up of

A

somatic and autonomic

96
Q

somatic NS

A

controls voluntary muscles and transmits information to the CNS

  • all nAchR
97
Q

autonomic nervous system

A

controls involuntary body functions such as heart rate

98
Q

autonomic ns made up of

A

parasympathetic and sympathetic NS

99
Q

sympathetic nervous ssytem

A

arouses body to expend energy

100
Q

parasdympathetic nervous system

A

calms body to consevre and maintaine energy

101
Q

brain matetr made up of

A

white and grey matetr

102
Q

grey matter in the brain

A

found on the outside of the brain

  • houses the cell bodies of neurones
  • where processing of info occurs
103
Q

white matter in the brain

A

found on the inside of the brain

  • mainly formed of axon (myelin sheath around neuroens gives it the white colour)
104
Q

how many spinal nerves

A

31

105
Q

spinal nerves split into

A

a dorsal root and ventral root

  • Sensory nerves enter the cord via the dorsal root
  • motor nerves leave the cord via the ventral root
106
Q

sensory enuroens carry impleses

A

from receptors in the greay matter via the dorsal horn

107
Q

cell bodies of snesory enuroens are found in the

A

dorsal root ganglion

108
Q

motor neuroens carry impuleses to

A

effectors e.g. muscles

109
Q

cell bodies of motor neurones are found in

A

grey matter

110
Q

what type of cells are sneosry neuroens

A

pseudounipolar cells

  • axons come out of the cell body and splits into ttow branches- one tot he CNS and the other into the PNS
111
Q

strucutre of spinal nerve

A
  • spinal nerve is surroudn ed by a alyer called the pineruium
  • the neurones are further arranged into fasicles (separated by perineum)
  • both myelinated and unmyelinated neurons found in the fasicles
  • myelinated fibres are separated from unmeylinated firbes by endoneurium
112
Q

myelinated fibres are

A

separated from unmeylinated firbes by endoneurium

113
Q

what surorunds spinal nerves (collection of neurones)

A

epineurium

114
Q

fasdicles of neuroens are separated by the

A

perineurium

115
Q

name 4 support cells of the NS

A
  • Schwann cells
  • Oligodendrocytes
  • astorcytes
  • microglia
116
Q

schwann cells

A

a type of glial cell.

Wraps around the axon and the phopsholipid membrane acting as an electrical insulator

some schwanna cells only provide structural support and do not myelinate neurones

117
Q

oligodendrites

A

can myelinate several axons at the same time

  • electircal isnulator of brain neurones

Structurally simialr to schwanna cells

118
Q

astorcytes

A

form tight junctions with capilalry endotheluial cells in order to rpevent leaking across the BBB

  • they can move excess NT from synapse
119
Q

microglia can

A

phagocytose foreign bodies in order to get rid of them

120
Q
A

give the broad structure of the skin

121
Q

Epidermis (outside)

Dermal layer (inside)

Hypodermis (connective tissue layer)

A
122
Q

epidermis

A

function: synthesis of keratin, prevent water loss and entry of pathogens

4/5 layers if cells

no blood vessels

some terminal enrve endinigns

123
Q

dermal layer (dermis)

A

between epidermis and hypodermis

Function:

  • contains hair and sweat glands - thermoregulation
  • sensory strucutres- touch (pacinian corpuscle)
  • gives structure of skin and so body shape

3 layers

124
Q

3 layers of the dermis

A
  • papillary- upper
  • reticular- lower
  • dermal papillae - interdigitating
125
Q

signs of inflammation (4)

A
  1. Rubor
  2. Dolor
  3. Calor
  4. Tumor
126
Q

rubor

A

redness

127
Q

dolor

A

pain

128
Q

calor

A

warmth

129
Q

tumor

A

swelling

130
Q

why do sites become inflammed

A
  1. vasodilation- causes rubor and dolor
  2. increased vascular permeability - causes production of protein-rich exudare leading to tumor
  3. influx of leukocytes
131
Q

the stratum corneum is

A

the otuermost layer of the epidermis and made out of keratinsed cells

132
Q

psoriasis

A

involves desquamation 9sheddign) of this layer

  • due to hyperproliferation of the keratinocytes
  • transdit time is 2-3 days
  • increases infiliration of leukocytes

Revision lectures (Year 1) (17 decks)

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