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Biological Sciences > Lecture 1 - The Cell > Flashcards

Lecture 1 - The Cell Flashcards

1
Q

What are the types of cells

A
  • Red blood cell
  • Sperm Cell
  • Muscle cell
  • Nerve cell
  • Photoreceptor
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2
Q

What does a general cell consist of

A
  • Cell membrane - holds everything together
  • Cytoplasm - everything inside cell membrane including organelles, liquid - cytosol
  • Organelles
  • Nucleus - largest organelle
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3
Q

What is the plasma membrane composed of

A
  • Bilayer ( 2 layers ) of phospholipid molecules
  • Protein molecules - protein channels - communication
  • Cholestrol
  • Glycocalyx
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4
Q

How thick is plasma membrane

A

5-7nm thick

Very strong - hold everything

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5
Q

Why is plasma membrane described as fluid mosaic

A

Fluid - not rigid/solid, can move/bend = structural flow

Mosaic - phospholipids scattered

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6
Q

What is glycocalyx

A
  • Sugar coating around cell of body, attached to surface, - Carbohydrate
  • Stick out of cell
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7
Q

Why do we have cholesterol in our plasma membrane?

A
  • Maintain structural stability and fluidity of bilayer- less movement / flexibility / deformity - prevents it being hard/rigid
  • If temperature too low phospholipids prevent them packing close together ( joining ) and crystalising
  • If the temperature is too high, it holds phospholipids together - stops them moving - form bonds with each other
  • Decreases permeability to small water soluble molecules
  • Immobolizes first few hydrocarbon groups of phospholipid molecules
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8
Q

Name three types of integral proteins and examples of these molecules/ions

A
  • Carrier protein
  • Protein channel
  • Receptor proteins
  • Glucose, Sodium and Potassium
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9
Q

Which component of the plasma membrane is vital for restoring membrane integrity if the membrane is damaged? and explain how and why it maintains integrity.

A
  • Phospholipid bilayer - amphipathic property…
  • ## If membrane is damaged/ruptured it will automatically reform into a bilayer - hyrdophilic heads face out attracting water and hydrophobic tails face away from water repelling it - hiding inbetween, avoiding contact with water…
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10
Q

What are two end of phospholipids

A

Hydrophobic tails - non polar - repel in water - hates contact with water - lipids - face each other
Hydrophilic heads - polar - attract water - facing away from each other

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11
Q

What is meant by amphipathic and what does it allow in cell membrane

A

Molecules that are hydrophobic one end and hydrophilic other end = 2 different regions
Form bilayer = robust

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12
Q

What is role of glycocalyx

A
  • Cell recognition/identity - signal to other cells in environment what that cell is - if it belongs there or not
  • Adhesion – glue - sticking cells to each other and things in environment
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13
Q

Integral proteins

A
  • Span membrane = act as gates/channels for molecules in and/or out = let things through
  • Others can be components of receptors
  • Some regions exposed to extracellular space and some to intracellular environment
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14
Q

Peripheral proteins

A

Bound to 1 face or other - anchors

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15
Q

What are the three types of junctions

A
  • Mechanical junctions
  • Sticky glycoproteins - glycocalyx
  • Specialised cell - cell junctions
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16
Q

How do junctions form

A

Two cells come in contact with each other

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17
Q

Why are junctions present in cells

A
  • Structural stability

- Share info

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18
Q

What are the two mechanical junctions

A
  • Ball and socket

- Tongue and groove

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19
Q

Ball and socket junctions

A
  • Movement within cells, between lens fibres
  • Interlock with each other - holds it in place but still allows movement/flexibility
  • Skeleton
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20
Q

Tongue and groove junction

A
  • Allow side movement, not up and down

- Tongue and groove matching along entire length - tongue sticking out one side and the the groove sticks out other end

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21
Q

Where are tongue and groove junctions found in eye

A

Between cells within lens

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22
Q

Anchoring junctions

A
  • Adjacent cells joined by joined by fibres from cytoskeleton
  • Found in places with mechanical stress e.g. skin
  • Stength, support and protection
  • Proteins join together, cells can’t pull apart = anchor one cell to another
  • Very robust
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23
Q

Gap junctions

A
  • Directly connect cytoplasms of two different cells = molecules diffuse from one cell to the next e.g. nutrients. This is done by CONNEXONS that connect cells.
  • Channels between neighboring cells that allow for the transport of ions, water, and other substances
  • Involves integral proteins which fuse to each other - each protein = channel/pore. Gate opens = free movement of molecules
  • Communication network between cytoplasm
  • Proteins fuse between 2 joining cells = channel = cytoplasm of two cells continuous with each other
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24
Q

Occluding ( tight ) junction

A
  • Adjacent protein molecules in opposing plasma membranes fuse, sealing/occluding the space between cells - prevents passage of molecules between cells
  • Pull cells tight together = impermeable barrier
  • Forms bond between proteins = stick together
  • Seals things = prevents passage of everything esp water - dont want to lose water - otherwise cell shrivel
  • Integral proteins fuse with matching proteins on cell next to it
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25
Q

Example of occluding junction

A

Between epithelial cells lining the digestive tract keep digestive enzymes and microorganisms in the intestine from leaking into the bloodstream

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26
Q

What are desmosomes

A

Anchoring junction that provide strong adhesion between cells

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27
Q

What are the types of desmosomes

A
  • Belt desmosome
  • Spot desmosome
  • Hemidesmosome
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28
Q

How do desmosomes work

A
  • Anchor cell to membrane - bound to adjacent cell
  • Stop cells being pulled apart - lock together
  • Inside membrane, peripheral proteins come together and form PLAQUE - bound to integral proteins = CADHERINS
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29
Q

What do the membrane of adjacent cells thicken into

A

Plaques

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30
Q

How are plaques anchored to inside of cell

A

By intermediate filaments

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31
Q

What are plaques of adjacent cells linked by

A

Cadherins

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32
Q

What are cadherins

A

Specialised adhesion proteins

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33
Q

Example of gap junction

A
  • Cardiac muscle, smooth muscle: the electrical signal to contract spreads rapidly between heart muscle cells as ions pass through gap junctions, allowing the cells to contract
  • Lens - nutrients by aqueous humour via gap junction as no blood vessels/supply - because dont want anything blocking it as light enters lens pupil - lens behind it. Nutrients taken up by lens on outside of lens
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34
Q

Why are gap junctions important

A

Allow rapid free movement of nutrients e.g. glucose, O2

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35
Q

What are connexons

A
  • The channels formed when proteins fuse

- The junctions between membrane proteins in gap junctions

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36
Q

What does the cytoplasm consist of

A
  • Cytosol
  • Cytoskeleton
  • Inclusions
  • Membrane bound organelles
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37
Q

What is the cytoskeleton

A

Skeleton of cell composed of protein filaments scattered throughout the cytoplasm

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38
Q

What are the 3 type of protein filaments in the cytoskeleton

A
  • Actin filaments
  • Intermediate filaments
  • Microtubules
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39
Q

What are actin filaments

A
  • Thinnest and shortest
  • Thin strands of actin monomers twisted in helix
  • Edge of cytoplasm
  • Found in muscle cells - movement
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40
Q

What are intermediate filaments

A
  • Thicker than actin
  • Very tough and durable - more stable and strong than others
  • Prominent in places with mechanical stress
  • Rapidly from and fall apart
  • Takes up most of cytoskeleton
  • Basket around nucleus and extends outwards
  • Anchors organelles in places in cell
  • Keratin - waterproof barrier
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41
Q

What are microtubules

A
  • Thickest and longest
  • Long tubes of tubulin proteins arranged into long tubes - twisted
  • Contribute to cell shape and structure
  • Facilitate movement of organelles - found in places where you want something extracellular to move around - e.g. tracheae - mucus - trap dirt, photoreceptors - evolved from cells with cilia - specilalised cilia - forms outer segment of photoreceptor - infoldings of membrane
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42
Q

What is an example of an inclusion

A

Melanin - granules, in retinal pigment epithelium - absorb excess light by photoreceptors at back of retina - brown pigment - gives iris colour and absorbs light - so only light entering eye is through pupil, not iris

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43
Q

What is role of cytoskeleton

A
  • Cell shape
  • Cytoplasmic movement of organelles
  • Cell division by pinching inwards
  • Whole cell movement
  • Enzymatic reactions
  • Support and movement - lengthens and shortens
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44
Q

How does the cytoskeleton contribute to movement and cell division

A

Moving nuclei to edges, changing plasma membrane shape.

Ring of cytoskeleton lengthening and pulling it together = new cell - pinches off = 2 nuclei form

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45
Q

Fibroblasts

A
  • Large, flat branching support cells present in most connective tissue
  • Secrete fibres e.g. collagen and some ground substance component of extracellular matrix.
  • Wound healing
  • Structural framework for tissues
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46
Q

What does a cilium consist of

A

9 microtubule doublets and 2 central microtubules ( move in unison, some shrink and elongate)

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47
Q

What is the centre of microtubule called

A

Centrosome

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48
Q

What is structure of centrosome

A
  • Located to one side of nucleus is pair of centrioles right angles to each other
  • 9 groups of microtubule triplets form wall of each centriole. Anchored onto by microtubules
  • Each one can grow, break off, branch and form other microtubules
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49
Q

What are centrioles

A

Small cyndrical structure

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50
Q

What is role of keratin

A

Waterproof barrier

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51
Q

Where is keratin found

A

Hair and nails

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52
Q

Lysosomes

A
  • Packaged by Golgi Apparatus
  • 0.05 - 0.2 micrometres diameter
  • Contains digestive enzymes - phagocytosis
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53
Q

What is Golgi Apparatus

A
  • Series of flat membrane stacks associated with tiny vesicles
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54
Q

What is Endoplasmic Reticulum

A

Series of thin membrane sacs enclosing fluid cavities - cisternae
Continuous with nucleus

55
Q

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

A
  • Synthesises and processes lipids, steroid hormones
  • Further from nucleus
  • Specialised ER
  • Found in muscle - calcium storage - muscle contraction
56
Q

What is function of Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

A
  • Folds and processes proteins made in the ribosomes
  • Makes proteins for membranes of cell or parcelled into vesicles by the Golgi apparatus for subsequent export from the cell
57
Q

Ribosomes

A
  • Very small - 20-30nm
  • Makes proteins for cell membranes and for export from cell
  • Consists of protein and RNA
  • Formed in nucleus, exit through nuclear = very small
58
Q

Mitochondria

A
  • Most abundant
  • Produces energy
  • ATP - aerobic respiration - glycloysis
  • 0.1 - 0.2 micrometres
  • Continuously reproducing division and growth
59
Q

What does the nucleus consist of

A
  • Nucleolus - makes ribosomes - rich in rNA and protein. 1 or 2 per nucleus
  • Nuclear envelope - double membrane around nucleus with space between ( perinuclear cisterna )
  • Nucleoplasm - jelly like fluid containing dissolved ions, nutrients and other solutes. Composed of chromatin and nucleolous suspended in matrix
  • Chromatin - makes up chromosomes - contains genetic info - interwined DNA and histone proteins
  • Nuclear pore - allow stuff to go in and out e.g. transcription factors
  • Membrane surrounding nucleoplasm - chromatin and nuclsolous within matrix
60
Q

Nucleus

A
  • Control centre
  • 5-10 micrometre diameter
  • Present in most cells
  • Regular shape in normal cells, irregular in cancer cells
61
Q

What is structure of red blood cell

A

Flattened biconcave disk shape

62
Q

What is function of nerve cell

A

Send out electrical impulses

63
Q

Where does everything happen in a nerve cell

A

The centre

64
Q

What is structure and function of muscle cell

A

Elongated fibre spindles

Stretch and change shape

65
Q

What is function of sperm cell

A

Tail - swims around

66
Q

What is a photoreceptor

A

Light detecting cell in retina

67
Q

What are the different sizes of cells

A
  • Small as 2 micrometres - in blood
  • Some 30cm in length - muscle cells
  • Some 1m or more - nerve cells ( neurons )
68
Q

What is the size of cheek cells

A

20 to 60 micrometres

69
Q

What is the diameter of an average cell

A

5 - 10 micrometres = very small

70
Q

What’s different between each cell

A

The size, shape and function

71
Q

What are the functions of the cell membrane

A
  • Maintaining integrity of cell
  • Specific regulation of passage
  • Communication site
72
Q

Maintaining integrity of cell membrane

A
  • Keeping it all together
  • Not generally permeable, but not a simple barrier - some things can freely move ( without energy ), other’s cant
  • E.g. surfaces of epithelial cells have different permeabilities
73
Q

Specific regulation of passage - cell membrane

A
  • Specific regulation of passage of molecules inwards and outwards i.e. specific and selective gates
  • e.g. protein channels - bind to specific molecules
74
Q

Communication site - cell membrane

A
  • Receptors for molecules in extracellular fluid
  • E.g. hormones, neurotransmitters ( neurons communicate at synapses), drugs
  • Releasing or receiving signals
  • All cells work together, talk to each other, not individual unit
75
Q

What is a hormone

A

Signalling messengers released by endocrine system

76
Q

What are role of drugs in cell membrane

A

Influence how cells work via communication on cell membrane

77
Q

How do cells in cell membrane work together

A

Via receptors

78
Q

What would cell need without cholestrol

A

Cell wall

79
Q

Where is cholesterol found

A

Hidden amongst hydrophobic tails

80
Q

What is the role of membrane proteins

A
  • Transport
  • Enzymatic activity
  • Receptors for signal transduction
  • Intercellular joining
  • Cell - cell recognition
  • Attachment to cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix
81
Q

Role of membrane proteins - Transport

A

Channel - some transport proteins hydrolyze ATP as an energy source to actively pump substances across membrane

82
Q

Role of membrane proteins - Enzymatic activity

A
  • Catalyse chemical reactions - metabolic pathway
83
Q

Role of membrane proteins - Receptors for signal transduction

A

respond to signal - change in protein structure - delivers signal to inter cellular environment or tell extracellular environment that something is happening inside = chemical reactions

84
Q

Role of membrane proteins - Intercellular joining

A
  • Membrane proteins of adjacent cells may be hooked together in various kinds of intercellular junctions = cell to cell interactions
85
Q

Role of membrane proteins - Cell - cell recognition

A

Identification tags specifically recognized by other cells - act as signals e.g gylcocalyx

86
Q

Role of membrane proteins - Attachment to cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix

A

Stuff binding to it - helps move it around - helps maintain cell shape and fix location of certain membrane proteins
- Adheres cell to extracellular environment

87
Q

What are carbohydrates on outer surface of cells attached to

A

Integral proteins

88
Q

What are 3 examples of glycocalyx playing role in cell - cell recogniton

A
  • Enables sperm to recognize egg cell - not wrong one as it shares nucleus - fertilization
  • Signals which cells should be destroyed by phagocytosis
  • Determines the ABO blood group of red blood cells
89
Q

How does glycocalyx play a role in immune system

A

Immune cells/white blood cells - read environment, if wrong one, try to kill it

90
Q

What are mechanical junctions

A

Change in plasma membrane which causes interlock with each other between 2 different cells

91
Q

What are specialised cell - cell junctions

A

Protein - protein interactions between 2 different cells

92
Q

Where is ball and socket used in eye

A

Between lens fibres

93
Q

How is ball and socket used between lens fibres

A
  • Behind cornea/pupil is the clear crystalline lens
  • This disperses light onto retina, different optical powers
  • When you cut it, lens is formed out of layers of cells
  • Has to acommodate - so need some movement/flexibility
94
Q

What are the 3 types of specialised cell - cell junctions

A
  • Occluding (tight)
  • Anchoring
  • Gap
95
Q

Where are anchoring junctions found with example

A

Found in places with mechanical stress e.g. skin

96
Q

What is a belt desmisome

A

Goes a long way round the cell, entire circumference

97
Q

What is a spot desmisome

A

Little ones - small area

98
Q

What is a hemidesmosome

A

If desmosome does not link adjacent cells but only links membrane to cytoplasm
Some desmosomes don’t bind 2 cells together

99
Q

Uses of hemidesmosome

A
  • Gives internal structure - adjust shape of plasma membrane
  • Everything inside ( cytoskeleton ) all connected to membrane
100
Q

What is formed when peripheral proteins come together

A

Plaque

101
Q

What is cytosol

A

Viscous fluid content of cell with other components suspended in it. Largely water but also sugars, salts e.t.c.

102
Q

What are inclusions

A
  • Various substances found in some cells but not others, stored nutrients, or pigments in cell
103
Q

What are the two examples of inclusions

A
  • Melanin

- Adipocytes

104
Q

What are adipocytes

A

Fat cells in body - contain huge lipid droplets - store triglcerides as energy store

105
Q

What do photoreceptors do

A

Absorb excess light - improves VA

106
Q

Where are photoreceptros found

A

Back of retina

107
Q

Which cells are melanin found

A

Melanocytes

108
Q

What is diameter of actin strands

A

8nm

109
Q

Where is actin found

A

Muscles and all cells - 10-30% of total cell volume

- Lining inside of plasma membrane

110
Q

What is structure of actin filaments

A

Two strands of globular actin monomers packed into a tight helix

111
Q

What is function of actin filaments

A
  • Movement
  • Mechanical support - give shape and strength to cells e,g. integral proteins
  • Helps to position vesicles near membrane
112
Q

How is actin filaments used in movement

A

Protein inside moves and contracts - turn plasma membrane into specific shape

113
Q

What is exocytosis

A

Movement of substances out of cell

114
Q

How does actin play a part in exocytosis

A

Helps to position vesicles near membrane

115
Q

How does actin play a part in enocytosis

A

Movement of membrane dictated by actin

116
Q

What is endocytosis

A

Movement of substances into cell

117
Q

Where is mitochondria mostly found

A

Very active cells - where most energy is required

e.g. cardiac muscle, liver cell

118
Q

What is meant by mitochondria being semi - autonomous

A

Possess some of their own DNA/genetic material which resembles that of bacteria, and they possess protein synthesis machinery for some of their own proteins

119
Q

Structure of mitochondria

A 
. 2 lipid bilayers
. Smooth outer membran
. Narrow intermembrane space
 . Inner membrane - cristae - increases SA - more proteins - energy production. Very active cells have more cristae in membrane
 . Matrix - jelly like
120
Q

Summary of protein synthesis

A

The proteins we make are ‘coded’ in the DNA of our genes
The gene’s DNA is ‘transcribed’ onto mRNA
The mRNA leaves the nucleus for the cell’s cytoplasm, where it joins onto ribosomes, located on the endoplasmic reticulum.
Here proteins are made by joining together amino acids in the process of ‘translation’.
Synthesised proteins can be ‘packaged’ by the Golgi apparatus

121
Q

What are the two locations of ribosomes

A
  • Some ribosomes free in the cytoplasm producing proteins for use by the cell
  • Others bound to endoplasmic reticulum – produce proteins for cell membranes and for export from the cell.
122
Q

Where is RER found

A
  • Found in cells that make protein for export e.g. plasma cells ( antibodies ), fibroblasts ( collagen , glandular cells - secrete stuff out
  • Near nucleus
123
Q

How is proteins used in collagen

A

Expressing proteins related to extracellular matrix - lots of collagen secreted from cells into extracellular environment - form network through which cells can migrate

124
Q

What is function of golgi apparatus

A
  • It modifies and packages new lipids and proteins. -
  • Makes lysosomes
  • Alter proteins - secreted inside of cisternae, package into vesicles, across and fuse with golgi apparatus
125
Q

What are two sides of golgi apparatus

A
  • CIS

- TRANS

126
Q

Summary of two sides of golgi apparatus

A

cis - side facing ER - vesicles bud off ER fuse with cis face. These proteins migrate through golgi apparatus and bud off trans face - go off and fuse with cell membrane

127
Q

What is role of cis side

A

side facing ER where vesicles from ER fuse

128
Q

What is role of trans face

A

modified and packaged proteins leave from here for transport to other parts of cell.

129
Q

What happens to proteins that are packaged into secretory vesicles

A
  • Be released from the cell by exocytosis
  • Form part of the cell membrane
  • Remain in the cell for later release (lysosomes)
130
Q

What is role of digestive enzymes in the lysosome

A
  • Digest and destroy worn out components of the cell
    • Useable products are recycled by diffusion into the cytoplasm
    • Indigestible/insoluble products accumulate with age. These are known as LIPOFUSCIN (presence in the eye is a sign of ageing).
  • Destroy bacteria and viruses
    • Some cells are specialized for this type of operation – Phagocytes (macrophages)
131
Q

How are these digestive enzymes from lysosomes formed

A

Some lysosomes dont make contact with membrane - some kept as individual packages in cytoplasm - contain enzymes - hydrolytic - packaged into lipid bubble - get rid of what you want

132
Q

Pores of nucleus

A

There are 3000-4000 in a typical mammalian nucleus, which enable easy passage of particular substances in and out of nucleus (especially mRNA)

133
Q

What is space between double membrane of nucleus

A

PERINUCLEAR CISTERNA

134
Q

What are the types of intermediate filaments

A
  • Epithelial and epidermal cells (hair & nails) – KERATIN - waterproof barrier
  • Fibroblasts ( main cell in connective tissue) & white blood cells (mesenchymal origin) – VIMENTIN
  • Striated and smooth muscle cells – DESMIN
  • Astrocytes and some Schwann cells- support cells for neurone – GLIAL FIBRILLARY ACIDIC PROTEIN

Biological Sciences (27 decks)

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