9. MINERALS Flashcards
This module covers: • The essential minerals and how the body uses them. • The key food sources for each mineral. • How each mineral is absorbed and metabolised. • Potential interactions with other nutrients and drugs. • Signs and symptoms of deficiency and toxicity states. • Specific therapeutic considerations. (121 cards)
1
Q
Define minerals
A
Minerals are inorganic elements that originate in the Earth that cannot be made by living organisms.
2
Q
Where do most of the minerals in our diet come from?
A
Directly from plants (or indirectly from animal sources).
3
Q
How are minerals absorbed and utilised in the human body?
A
Minerals are absorbed in the GIT (mostly in the small intestine) in their ionic state (with the exception of iron) and must be unbound from the organic compound with the help of digestive secretions (e.g., stomach acid) before being utilised by the body.
4
Q
What affects the mineral levels in plants?
A
It vary depending on the mineral content in soil.
5
Q
Minerals are found in all body tissues. Which two minerals make up the majority (approx. 75%) of the body’s total mineral content?
A
Calcium and phosphorus
6
Q
Name 5 macro-minerals
A
- Calcium (Ca)
- Phosphorus (P)
- Sulphur (S)
- Magnesium (Mg)
- Potassium (K)
- Sodium (Na)
- Chloride (Cl)
7
Q
List 5 trace-minerals
A
- Iron (Fe)
- zinc (Zn)
- iodine (I)
- Selenium (Se)
- manganese (Mn)
- Molybdenum (Mo)
- Copper (Cu)
- Chromium (Cr)
- Boron (B)
- Fluoride (F)
- Silicon (Si)
8
Q
In which state do macro-minerals exist in the body (and in food)?
A
Mainly in the ionic state (as cations or anions)
9
Q
List 5 key functions of minerals
A
- Building tissues; e.g., skeletal system, teeth.
- Nerve and muscle function.
- Thyroid health (supporting metabolism).
- Supporting immune health.
- Components of enzymes
10
Q
Name 2 elements each which are Cations and Anions respectively?
A
Cations:
K+ (potassium), Mg2+ (magnesium), Ca2+ (calcium), Na+ (sodium)
Anions:
Cl- (chlorine as chloride); S- (sulphur as sulphate); P- (phosphorus as phosphate)
11
Q
Which factors can affect mineral bioavailability?
A
1.In mineral deficiency states, the body upregulates absorption of the mineral. In excess states, it downregulates absorption.
- Food can enhance (e.g. ascorbic acid and Fe) or inhibit (e.g. phytates and Fe) absorption.
- Other minerals present in food (or supplements) — can compete for absorption: (e.g. iron supplements reduce Zn absorption; Zn antagonises Cu absorption)
12
Q
In supplements, minerals are rarely found in their pure form. What are the carrier molecules called and name two organic and two inorganic forms
A
Carrier molecules called Ligands
Organic: Citrate, ascorbate, gluconate, glycinate.
Inorganic: Oxide, carbonate, sulphide, chloride.
13
Q
What are three challenges with mineral supplementation?
A
Tolerability, bioavailability and chemical reactivity.
14
Q
What is the most abundant mineral in the body and where is it mainly found?
A
- Calcium (Ca) is the most abundant mineral in the body accounting for 2% of body weight and 39% of the body’s mineral content.
- 99% of Ca in the body is found in mineralised connective tissues (bones and teeth).
- The rest (1%) is found in extra-cellular fluid, muscle and other tissues.
15
Q
How are blood calcium levels regulated?
A
Ca levels in blood are tightly regulated by parathyroid hormone (PTH), vitamin D and calcitonin (at the expense of the skeleton when dietary intake is inadequate).
16
Q
Which source of calcium is the most bio-available:
a) Full fat cow’s milk
b) Kale
A
b) Kale. Vegetable sources have the highest bioavailability, e.g., Ca from cruciferous vegetables is absorbed 2x as efficiently as Ca from dairy.
17
Q
Name three foods that are good sources of Calcium
A
- Sage
- Sesame seeds
- Kale
- Sardines (incl. bones)
- Edamame beans
- Almonds
- Haricot beans
- Dairy foods such as cow’s milk
18
Q
Name 5 functions of Calcium in the body
A
- Bone health
- Cell signalling
- Muscle contraction
- Blood clotting
- Neuro-transmitters
19
Q
Why would you consider the therapeutical use of Calcium in the following:
a) Mood-related PMS symptoms
b) Muscle cramps
c) Osteoporosis
A
a) Ca is required for the conversion of tryptophan to serotonin (it is a co-factor).
b) Ca mediates vasoconstriction (from increased concentration of Ca2+ ions in vascular smooth muscle cells).
c) Ca is crucial for building and preserving bone mass; it is an abundant mineral that binds to the collagen framework in bone, increasing its density.
20
Q
Where does the highest absorption of Ca occur, and why?
A
Ca is absorbed by all parts of the small intestine, but especially in the duodenum, where conditions are more acidic (due to the chyme that enters from the stomach), which increases absorption.
21
Q
Explain the difference between how Ca is absorbed:
a) actively
b) passively
A
a) Active absorption is controlled by vitamin D
(calcitriol), which binds to the enterocyte vitamin
D receptor (VDR) and increases the transcription
of calcium transporters called calbindins, which increase calcium movement from the GIT to the blood.
b) Passive absorption occurs without vit. D, when Ca is consumed.
22
Q
Which factors can affect mineral bioavailability?
A
- Mineral status in the body — in mineral deficiency states, the body upregulates absorption of the mineral. In excess states, it downregulates absorption.
- Substances present in food — can enhance (e.g., ascorbic acid and Fe) or inhibit (e.g., phytates and Fe) absorption.
- Other minerals present in food (or supplements) — can compete for absorption: (e.g., iron supplements reduce Zn absorption; Zn antagonises Cu absorption)”
23
Q
Which factors that inhibit absorption of Ca and which factors that increase excretion?
A
Factors that inhibit absorption:
*Low vitamin D status
*Low stomach acid (HCl dissolves calcium salts)
*High intake of phytates / oxalates
*Gastrointestinal dysfunction
*Other minerals (e.g., Mg, Fe, Zn)
Factors that increase excretion:
*Menopause (low oestrogen)
*High animal-protein diets (due to high levels of urea and sulphuric acid)
*High-salt diets
*High caffeine intake
*Medications (see drug interactions)
24
Q
Is loss of bone mineral density a asymptomatic or symptomatic condition?
A
Asymptomatic
25
What is likely the problem with high cow's milk dairy consumption and osteoporosis risk?
The protein composition of cow's milk is likely the problem, as dairy is high in sulphur-based amino acids (e.g., methionine), which can increase sulphuric acid formation — leaching calcium (an alkaline mineral) from bones.
26
What are the risks of taking Ca?
*Kidney stones
*Soft tissue calcification, especially when vitamin D and K levels are inadequate
Studies mostly show that calcium supplementation is ineffective at preserving bone density when dietary intake is sufficient.
27
Which minerals Ca interfere with?
Mg, Fe, Zn, P
28
How much magnesium is in the human body, and where is it mainly found?
The body contains approx. 25g of Mg
60% in bone;
39% in cells and muscle;
1% in serum / extracellular fluid
29
What are the core elements in haemoglobin and chlorophyll, and how are their structures similar?
Haemoglobin and chlorophyll are almost identical in their structure.
Haemoglobin having iron at its core, and
chlorophyll (the green plant pigment), magnesium
30
Name three foods that are good sources of Magnesium
*Swiss chard
*Amaranth
*Pumpkin seeds
*Soy beans
*Cacao powder
31
Name 5 functions of Magnesium in the body
1. Energy production
2. Cell signalling
3. Blood clotting
4. Muscle relaxation
5. Sleep and calming
32
How is magnesium absorbed and excreted in the body
*30–50% of dietary magnesium is absorbed, mostly in the distal small intestine (ileum)
*Phosphate and calcium can inhibit magnesium absorption
*Magnesium is excreted in urine, feces, and to a lesser extent during exercise and sweating
*Kidneys primarily regulate magnesium homeostasis
33
Why do serum magnesium levels not accurately reflect magnesium status?
Due to 99% of magnesium residing inside our cells.
34
Why would you consider the therapeutical use of Magnesium in the following:
a. Fatigue
b. Insulin resistance — diabetes, PCOS
c. Stress / anxiety
a. Needed to convert ADP to ATP
b. Essential for glucose metabolism
and insulin sensitivity (Mg is a co- factor, modulating glucose transport — needed for the activity of tyrosine kinase
b. Mg is used as a co-factor for GABA synthesis
35
What is ‘tolerable upper limit’ (TUL) for Mg supplementation
400 mg
36
Who should be cautious using high dose of Mg?
Someone with hypotension
37
Which form of Mg has high bioavailability?
Mg glycinate, citrate and malate
38
What are the common causes of Mg insufficiency?
* Poor nutrition (high in processed foods, low in dark green vegetables,
* Chronic stress (increases Mg excretion)
* Alcoholism
* Other malabsorption conditions.
39
What are the symptoms of Mg insufficiency
* Fatigue and insomnia.
* Anxiety, depression, irritability, panic attacks.
* Muscle cramps / spasms / twitches.
* Headaches (e.g., tension-type and migraines).
* Palpitations
40
Give three examples of the functions of zinc as a co-factor in metalloenzymes. How do these enzymes contribute to different biological processes?
* Antioxidant activity (Superoxide dismutase -SOD),
* Alcohol breakdown (Alcohol dehydrogenase)
* Protein digestion (Carboxypeptidase)
* Other enzymes involved in haem synthesis, folate absorption and DNA / RNA synthesis.
41
Name three foods that are good sources of Zinc
* Oysters
* Sesame
* Rye flour
* Calf’s liver
* Chickpeas
42
Name five functions of Zinc in the body
- Reproduction
- Cell proliferation
- Endocrine
- Sensory function
- Immunity and antioxidant
- Digestion
43
Why would you consider the therapeutic use of Zinc in the following:
a) Thyroid health
b) Frequent infections
c) Weak digestion
a) Needed for T4 to T3 conversion
b) Increases phagocyte, natural killer cell, T- and B-cell activity
c) Zn is used for the production of HCl and the synthesis of pancreatic enzymes
44
What enhances and inhibits Zn absorption
- Protein generally enhances Zn absorption
- Phytates in plants inhibit absorption. (Phytate levels can be reduced by soaking, sprouting and fermenting).
- Excess Ca, Cu and non-haem Fe may also inhibit Zn absorption
45
The absorption of which mineral is antagonised by Zn supplementation?
Copper
46
List five signs and symptoms of Zn deficiency
* Poor sense of taste and smell.
* Recurrent infections, delayed wound healing.
* Skin disorders (e.g., acne), dandruff, white spots on fingernails.
* Infertility (male and female) and low libido.
* Signs of weak digestion (e.g., bloating, fatigue).
47
When using Zn supplements, which form is well-absorbed?
Zn picolinate
Zn citrate
Zn acetate
Zn glycinate
48
What is Tolerable Upper Limit (TUL) for Zn
40 mg
49
What is typical supplemental dosage for Zn
Between 15–25 mg / day and it’s advised to take with food, as taken on an empty stomach can cause stomach upset
50
Phosphorus (P) is the body’s second most abundant mineral. What percentage of phosphorus is found in the body and where?
About 85% of P is found combined with Ca in hydroxyapatite crystals of bones and teeth.
51
Name three foods that are good sources of Potassium?
* Raw spinach
* Avocado
* Quinoa
* Pistachio
* Clams
* Calf’s liver
52
Name two functions of Potassium in the body
* Osmotic pressure and electrolyte balance (nerve transmission, muscle function)
* Enzyme co-factor (involved in energy metabolism, cellular growth)
53
What are the symptoms of Potassium deficiency?
* Muscle cramps / fatigue / weakness
* High blood pressure / irregular beat
* Mental confusion / fatigue / irritability
* Insomnia
* Insatiable thirst
54
Name three causes of Potassium deficiency
* Diarrhoea
* Vomiting
* Diuretics that enhance K loss
* Chronic renal disease
* Laxative abuse
55
Which organ tightly regulates Potassium levels in the body?
Kidneys
56
# True or false?
“It’s possible to consume too much potassium from food”
False
57
Name three functions of Sodium and Chloride
* pH balance & blood pressure
* Nerve transmission
* Digestion
58
Name 4 types of salt
* Table salt
* Sea salt
* Himalayan salt
* Grey / Celtic salt
59
Which type of salt can contribute
to hypertension, atherosclerosis,
insulin resistance and cancers (i.e., gastric)
Table salt
60
Sodium and Chloride deficiency is extremely rare but when it does occur, it is usually a result of which medical conditions?
* Persistent diarrhoea
* Overuse of diuretics
* Vomiting
* Chronic renal disease
* Liver disease
* Cachexia (wasting condition)
* Ulcerative colitis
61
How much Iron do we have of in our bodies and WHERE it is distributed?
We have between 3–4 g of iron in our bodies distributed throughout blood, bone marrow, muscles, and enzymes.
62
Name TWO dietary forms of iron
- Non-haem iron (plant and animal foods) — ferric form of iron.
- Haem iron (animals: meats, poultry, fish) — ferrous form of iron
63
Name three foods that are good sources of Iron (Fe)
* Pumpkin
* Quinoa
* Clams, calf’s liver
* Soybeans
* Spinach
64
Name five functions of Iron in the body
* Oxygen transport and storage
* Energy (ATP) production
* Endocrine system
* Immune function
* Neurotransmitter synthesis
65
Why would you consider the therapeutic use of Iron in the following:
a) Thyroid support (hypothyroidism)
b) Immune function
c) Fatigue, mitochondrial support
a) Iron is needed for the activity of the enzyme ‘thyroid peroxidase’, which is required to synthesise thyroid hormones.
b) Lymphocyte proliferation and maturation.
c) A component of cytochrome enzymes in the electron transport chain.
66
When iron stores are high, the liver converts ferritin into another storage protein which releases iron more slowly. Name that storage protein.
Hemosiderin
67
On which factors does iron absorption depend?
Factors like:
* GI tract health,
* The presence of supportive / inhibiting nutrients (e.g., vitamin C / phytates), and
* The food source (haem v. non-haem).
68
How can an individual's intake of non-haem iron be optimised?
* Eliminate junk food (nutrient-depleted, highly-processed foods).
* Build meals around Fe-rich foods:
E.g., dark green vegetables, beans, whole grains.
* Eat high vitamin C vegetables and fruit with meals (peppers,
cruciferous, kiwis, oranges, lemon) to promote Fe absorption.
* Avoid drinking black tea and dairy at mealtimes.
* Eat foods that contain yeast (e.g., bread), are sprouted (e.g., bean sprouts), and fermented (e.g., tempeh) to reduce inhibitors like phytates.
69
What are the signs & symptoms of Iron deficiency?
* Symptoms: Fatigue on exertion, weakness,
headaches, apathy, breathlessness, poor resistance to cold temperatures.
* Signs: Pallor, nail spooning, hair loss, tachycardia.
70
Why is there a high risk of Iron toxicity?
Because there is no physiological mechanism for iron excretion
71
Why can iron overload be harmful?
- Free iron is a pro-oxidant and can cause oxidative damage (associated with atherosclerosis, cancer, Alzheimer’s, etc.)
- Iron is a bacterial growth factor and can cause increased infection rates (hence only 1% of iron in the body is unbound).
- Excess iron can accumulate in organs (e.g., the brain and liver)
72
What can contribute to iron overload?
* Haemochromatosis (a common genetic disorder affecting 1 in 250 individuals that enhances iron absorption).
* Indiscriminate use of iron supplements.
* High-dose vitamin C supplementation.
* Excessive red meat (haem-iron) consumption, which has been linked to greater iron stores and a higher risk of:
– Some cancers (e.g., colon, prostate).
– Diabetes mellitus and heart disease.
73
Which other minerals interact with Iron?
* Zinc
* Copper
* Calcium
74
Which vitamin enhances the absorption of non-haem Iron?
Vitamin C
75
Name a non-metallic trace element found in the body mainly as part of the antioxidant enzyme ‘glutathione peroxidase’.
Selenium
76
Which population groups are at a higher risk of developing iron deficiency?
* Women of reproductive age (menstrual blood loss).
* Pregnancy (↑ blood volume; blood loss in labour).
* Times of rapid growth (e.g., teenagers)
77
Name FOUR functions of Selenium
* Antioxidant
* Immunity
* Thyroid hormones
* Reproduction
78
Why would you consider the therapeutic use of Selenium in the following:
a) Hypothyroidism
b) Male fertility
c) Heavy metal detox
a) Conversion of thyroxine (T4) to triiodothyronine (T3).
b) Selenium is needed for sperm motility
c) A co-factor in glutathione peroxidase (an enzyme that protects cells from free radical damage).
79
Where in the body is Selenium absorbed?
Selenium is mostly absorbed in the duodenum (55–85% absorption rate)
80
Which is more bioavailable - selenium from plant, animal sources or supplements?
Selenium from plant sources (selenomethionine) is more bioavailable (>80%)
81
Toxicity symptoms of Se include:
* Brittle hair and nails (or loss of nails)
* Skin lesions, dermatitis, secondary infections
* Depression, neurological abnormalities
* Garlic odour (from expiration of dimethylselenide)
82
Name TWO nutrient interactions of Selenium
* In severe iodine deficiency, Se supplementation can trigger / exacerbate hypothyroidism by accelerating T4 metabolism.
* Ingestion of large amounts of DHA and EPA increases the requirement for selenium.
* Studies suggest that supplementing with Zn / Cu may increase Se requirements.
* Se deficiency aggravates the effects of vitamin E deficiency in animal studies.
83
Where is Cu absorbed in the body?
* Mostly in the small intestine
* Stomach to a lesser degree (enhanced by stomach acid)
84
Where Cu is excreted?
It is excreted in bile.
85
Name FIVE food sources of Cu?
* Sesame, cashews, sunflower
* Quinoa, oats, chickpeas
* Shiitake, avocado, garlic
* Calf’s liver
* Oysters
86
Name FIVE functions of Cu
* A component of the antioxidant enzymes
* Supports the structure of skin, blood vessel and bone
* Formation of erythrocytes
* Part of innate immune system that kills bacteria
* Nervous system - formation and maintenance of the myelin sheath.
87
How can Cu deficiency be induced?
- Long-term high zinc supplementation (>50 mg / day) depresses Cu absorption and restricts utilisation of Cu.
- Infants fed cow's milk (dairy is a very poor source of copper).
88
What are the most frequent signs and symptoms of Cu deficiency?
- Anaemia (due to Cu role in iron metabolism).
- Bone fractures (due to Cu role in collagen structure).
- Impaired growth and reduced skin pigmentation.
- Recurrent infections
89
What are the symptoms and potential causes of acute copper toxicity, and how is it typically manifested?
Acute toxicity is typically only seen from contaminated drinking water (e.g., copper pipes) or genetic disorders (Wilson’s disease).
– Symptoms of acute Cu toxicity include vomiting, diarrhoea, liver / kidney damage, haemolytic anaemia, coma and death.
– Investigate water supply, supplementation or high-Cu food intake.
90
What are the symptoms of copper overload, and what factors, especially in women, may contribute to this condition?
Copper overload is more common, especially in women as oestrogen can cause Cu retention.
– Symptoms of Cu overload include emotional instability, ADHD, intolerance to OCP, low immunity (Zn deficiency), skin sensitivity to cheap metal, allergies, acne and more.
– In Cu overload, explore Zinc deficiency and gut function.
91
Which mineral is a component of thyroid hormones which regulate the metabolic rate of all cells in the body?
Iodine (I)
92
List THREE food sources of Iodine
* Sea vegetables
* Ocean fish and shellfish such as cod and scallops
* Eggs and dairy foods (due to the fortification of animal feed)
93
Name THREE functions of Iodine
* Thyroid hormones
* Brain health
* Metabolism
94
Outline the process of thyroid hormone production in the body.
Making thyroid hormones:
* The thyroid gland ‘traps’ iodine from the blood.
* Thyroid hormone is made by binding iodine and the amino acid tyrosine to a glycoprotein called thyroglobulin.
* The rate of iodine capture is under the control of TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone).
* The selenium-dependent enzyme, iodothyronine deiodinase converts the relatively inactive T4 to the active T3.
95
Iodine deficiency leads to decline in thyroid hormone production and if prolonged, it can lead to which condition? What are related signs and symptoms?
Hypothyroidism with symptoms like: fatigue, weight gain and depression. Prolonged ID can lead to a goitre (enlarged thyroid).
96
What are the consequences of severe iodine deficiency during pregnancy, and what daily intake of iodine is recommended by the WHO to prevent these adverse effects?
It causes extreme and irreversible mental and physical retardation. A daily intake of 150 mcg is recommended
97
What is the tolerable upper limit (TUL) for Iodine
600 mcg
98
Which nutrients are crucial for iodine utilisation?
Nutrients such as tyrosine, Zn, Mg and B vitamins are crucial for iodine utilisation
99
What are 'goitrogens'? Give two examples of foods that contain these.
Substances in food that interfere with iodine uptake in the thyroid.
Foods like soya, millet and raw brassica vegetables
100
Where is Manganese stored in the body?
It is stored mostly in bone (>40%) and very metabolically active organs such as liver, kidneys, pancreas and brain.
101
Name THREE functions of Manganese (Mn)
* Facilitate the metabolism of carbohydrates, amino acids and cholesterol.
* Structural - collagen formation
* Cofactor for the antioxidant ‘Mn superoxide dismutase’ (MnSOD)
102
Name the essential trace mineral that potentiates the action of insulin
Chromium (Cr)
103
List FOUR food sources of Chromium (Cr)
* Broccoli, green beans
* Barley, oats, whole wheat
* Turkey
* Black pepper (2tsp)
104
What is the key therapeutic use for chromium?
Explain how this works.
**Blood sugar regulation.** Cr is a component of ‘chromodulin’, which is a protein that increases the sensitivity of the enzyme ‘tyrosine kinase’, so that when insulin binds to its receptor, its action is enhanced and subsequently glucose uptake by cells in facilitated.
In addition to carbohydrate (glucose) metabolism, insulin also influences the **metabolism of fats and protein.**
105
What are the symptoms of Chromium (Cr) deficiency?
* Anxiety
* Sugar cravings
* Fatigue
106
What is an adequate intake (AI) of Chromium for adults
from 30–44 mcg / day
107
Which mineral can interact with Chromium?
Fe overload (haemochromatosis) can impair Cr transport.
108
Of which important molecules, is sulphur a key component?
- Acetyl CoA — a key molecule for ATP production.
- Vitamins: Biotin, thiamine — essential B-vitamins.
- Key antioxidants: Glutathione, lipoic acid.
- Mineral transporters: Metallothionein (a metal-binding protein).
- Methylsulfonylmethane (MSM) — inhibits cartilage breakdown.
– S is in four amino acids: Methionine, Cysteine, Taurine.
109
List FOUR rich food sources of sulphur
* Alliums: E.g., garlic, onions, shallots, leeks, chives
* Cruciferous (brassicas): Broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage, Brussels sprouts, turnips, kale, spring greens, radish.
* Legumes: Especially soya beans, black beans
* Eggs and dairy: Parmesan, gorgonzola, cheddar
* Protein foods: Meat, poultry, fish and seafood
110
Name FOUR functions of sulphur
* Antioxidant - create glutathione (the body’s primary endogenous antioxidant)
* Sulphur is needed to produce insulin
* A key component of collagen
* Phase II liver detox
111
What are the signs and symptoms of sulphur deficiency?
* Brittle hair, nails, joint pain (i.e., cartilage degeneration),
* Slow wound-healing,
* Hormone imbalances.
112
Molybdenum (Mo) is an essential trace mineral that is a co-factor for which enzymes involved in detoxification?
- Sulphite oxidase: Detoxification of sulphite to sulphate to prevent the dangerous accumulation of sulphites in the body.
- Xanthine oxidase: Formation of uric acid from purine breakdown.
- Aldehyde oxidase: The clearance of drugs containing aldehydes
113
Name one food source of molybdenum (Mo)
* Legumes (the richest source)
* Whole grains, nuts, green leafy vegetables, beef liver and milk
114
What is the average consumption of molybdenum (Mo) per day
Recommended levels (adults: 45 mcg / day; TUL 2 mg)
115
Name THREE minerals that are not considered essential in humans but plays a role in bone development
* Boron (B)
* Silicon (Si)
* Fluoride (F)
116
Which non essential mineral is highly toxic, especially to the thyroid gland and tooth enamel?
Fluoride (F)
117
Name FIVE drug-mineral Interactions
* Statins: Se lowers drug effect; interacts with Mg & K
* Omeprazole: depletes Ca, Fe, Zn
* ACE inhibitors: Increases Mg; Lowers Zn; Fe interacts with
* Anticoagulants: depletes Zn; interacts with Se
* Antibiotics: Mg, Ca, Zn, Mn, Fe lowers drug effectiveness; depletes K.
* Diuretics: increases Ca; depletes Mg, K, Zn
* Levothyroxine: Mg, Fe, Ca lowers drug effectiveness
118
List FOUR food sources of Manganese
* Wheat germ
* Hazelnuts, pine nuts, walnuts
* Cloves, saffron, ginger, black pepper
* Blue mussels
119
Se is among the most toxic of the essential minerals. What is the TUL for adults per day?
adults is 300 μg / day
120
Name THREE signs of Selenium deficiency.
* Cardiomyopathy,
* Muscle pain, weakness,
* Elevated liver enzymes,
* Growth retardation,
* Infertility
121
Name 5 food sources of Selenium
* Brazil nuts, sunflower
* Whole wheat (durum), rye
* Yellowfin tuna, swordfish, clams, oysters
* Garlic, mushrooms
* Calf’s liver, pork, turkey, chicken
