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IB Biology HL > Topic 6.3/11.1 > Flashcards

Topic 6.3/11.1 Flashcards

1
Q

Pathogen

A

Microbes that cause disease

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2
Q

List the primary defence of the body

A

Skin and mucous membranes

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3
Q

Outline how the skin acts as a barrier to infection

A
  • Tough layer and provides a physical barrier against the entry of pathogens
  • Protection against physical and chemical damage
  • Sebaceous glands secrete sebum that maintains skin moisture and lowers skin pH (inhibits the growht of bacteria and fungi)
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4
Q

Outline how the mucous membranes act as a barrier to infection

A
  • Secrete a sticky solution of glycoproteins
  • Pathogens and harmful particles are trapped in it (swallowed or expelled)
  • Antiseptive properties because of the anti-bacterial enzyme lysozyme
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5
Q

Outline the benefits of blood clots

A
  • Seals up the wound and prevents further loss of blood and blood pressure
  • Prevents entry of pathogens until new tissue has grown to heal the cut
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6
Q

Outline reasons for a reaction mechanism to regulate blood clotting

A
  • Clots can cause blockages if they occur inside blood vessels
  • Should only occur when the skin is cut and the blood vessel is severed
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7
Q

Platelets

A
  • Cellular fragments that circulate in the blood
  • Release clotting factors
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8
Q

Outline the process of blood clotting

A
  • Platelets aggregate at the site of injury, forming a temporary plug
  • Release clotting factors that trigger off the production of thrombin (enzyme) - Thrombin converts soluble protein fibrinogen into insoluble fibrin
  • Fibrin forms a mesh in cuts that traps more platelets and blood cells
  • The clot is initially a gel, but dries and forms a hard scab when exposed to air
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9
Q

Coronary thrombosis

A
  • Formation of blood clots in the coronary arteries
  • Block suupply of oxygen and nutrient
  • Can be fatal unless resolves naturally or through medical intervention
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10
Q

Outline how atherosclerosis cause occlusion in the coronary arteries

A
  • Atheroma develops
  • The endothelium of the arteries tends to become damaged and roughened (especially by deposition of calcium salts)
  • Atheroma sometimes rupture and cuase a lesion
  • Increases the risk of coronary thrombosis
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11
Q

List the factors of increased risk of coronary thrombosis and heart attack

A
  • Smoking
  • High blood cholesterol concentration
  • High blood pressure
  • Diabetes
  • Obesity
  • Lack of exercise
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12
Q

Describe how phagocytes provide non-specific immunity to diseases

A
  • Squeeze out through pores in the walls of capillaries and move to sites of infection
  • Engulf pathogens by endocytosis
  • Digest pathogens with enzymes from lysosomes
  • Dead phagocytes form pus
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13
Q

Antigen

A
  • Chemicals that induce an immune response inside the body
  • Proteins (glycoproteins or other macromolecules) on the surface of the cell membrane of the pathogen that are recognized by a specific antibody
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14
Q

Antibodies

A
  • Protein molecules produced by B-lymphocytes
  • Recognize and bind to the antigens on the foreign pathogens
  • Each antibody is specific to each type of antigen
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15
Q

State the substance that stimulate a specific immune response

A

Antigen

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16
Q

Why does it take time for the body to fight off a disease (specific immunity)

A
  • Initially there are few lymphocytes that target the specific antigen
  • They produce few antibodies and cannot control a pathogen
  • Antigens on the pathogen sticulate cell division of the specific lymphocytes and produce enough antibodies to ctonrol th epathogen and clear the infection
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17
Q

Describe the structure of antibodies

A
  • Two functional regions
  • Hypervariable region that binds to a specific antigen
  • Another region that helps the body to fight the pathogen in several ways
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18
Q

Memory cells

A
  • Some lymphocytes produced during an infection are not active plasma cells
  • Become dormant until the body encounters the same pathogen again
  • Then they replicate rapidly
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19
Q

Descibe why the immune response is faster for a second response than first response

A
  • Memory cells can quickly replicate and produce enough antibodies to target the pathogen
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20
Q

Antibiotic

A
  • Chemical that inhibits that growth of microorganisms
  • Most ar antibacterial
  • Blockprocesses that occur in prokaryotes but not in eukaryotes
  • Used to kill bacteria inside the body wihtout causing harm to human cells
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21
Q

What processes in bacteria are targeted by antibiotics

A
  • Bacterial DNA replication
  • Transcription
  • Translation
  • Ribosome function
  • Cell wall formation
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22
Q

State the type of cells that human immunodeficiency virus target

A

Helper T-cell

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23
Q

Outline the consequence of human immunodeficiency virus

A
  • Progressive loss of capacity to produce antibodies
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24
Q

HIV positive

A
  • Early stage of infection
  • Immune system makes antibodies against HIV and can be detected
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25
Q

Retrovirus

A
  • Virus that has inheritary information stored in RNA
  • Use reverse transcriptase to make DNA copies of its genes once it has entered a host cell
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26
Q

Describe three ways that HIV can transmit from person to person

A
  • Sexual intercouse, during which abrasions to the mucous membranes of the penis and vagina can cause minor bleeding
  • Transfusion of infected blood, or blood products such as Factor VIII
  • Sharing of hypodermic needles by intravenous drug users
27
Q

Who discovered penicillin

A

Alexander Fleming

28
Q

Who tested penicillin on bacterial infections in mice

A
  • Howard Florey
  • Ernst Chain
29
Q

Outline Florey and Chain’s experiment on mice

A
  • Four infected mice were given injections with penicillin
  • All of the untreated mice were dead by the four were healthy
30
Q

Outline the purpose of molecules on the surface of cells

A
  • Usually polysaccharides (antigens) and proteins/polypeptides (on our body cells)
  • Recognize the distinction between antigens and body cells
31
Q

Antigen H

A
  • Basic antigen sequence on all three allels of blood types (A, B, O)
  • Modified by the addition of molecules in different blood types (galactose for antigen B and N-acetylalactosamine for antigen A)
32
Q

Describe the consequence of receiving the wrong type of blood

A
  • Immune response, agglutination (clumping)
  • Hemolysis where red blood cells are destroyed and blood may coagulate in the vessel
33
Q

Macrophages

A
  • Ingest pathogens
  • Display antigens in the plasma membrane
34
Q

Describe the role of helper T cells in the immune response

A
  • Helper T cells have an abtibody-like receptor protein in their plasma membrane
  • Bind to antigens displayed by the macrophages
  • Only a few helper T cells have receptor proteins that fit the antigen
  • Once binded, the helper T cells are activated by the macrophage
  • The activated helper T cells bind to B cells and activate them (by binding and releasing a signalling protein)
35
Q

Plasma cells

A
  • Mature B lymphocytes
  • Produce and secrete large number of antibodies during an immune response
36
Q

What cell structure does plasma cells have in abundance and why

A
  • rough endoplasmic reticulum (rER)
  • Manufactures, modifies, and transports protein (antibodies)
37
Q

Clonal selection

A
  • Generation of large numbers of plasma cells that produce one specific antibody type
38
Q

State five ways how antibodies aid in the destruction of pathogens

A
  • Opsonization
  • Neutralization of viruses and bacteria
  • Neutralization of toxins
  • Activation of complement
  • Agglutination
39
Q

Opsonization

A
  • Antibodies make a pathogen more recognizable to phagocytes
  • Once bound, they can link the pathogen to phagocytes
40
Q

Neutralization of viruses and bacteria

A

Antibodies can prevent viruses from docking to host cells so that they cannot enter the cells

41
Q

Neutralization of toxins

A
  • Antibodies can bind to the toxins produced by pathogens
  • Prevent them from affecting susceptible cells
42
Q

Activation of complement

A
  • The complement system is a collection of proteins which ultimately lead to the perforation of the membranes of pathogens
  • Antibodies bound to the surface of a pathogen activate a complement cascade
  • Allow water and ions to enter into the pathogen, causing it to lyse
43
Q

Agglutination

A
  • Antibodies can cause sticking together of pathogens
  • Prevent from entering cells
  • Easier for phagocytes to ingest
  • The large allutinated mass can be filtered by the lymphatic system and then phagocytized
44
Q

Outline what immunity is depended on

A
  • Persistence of memory cells (allow production of antibodies)
  • Presence of antibodies that recognize antigens
45
Q

Annotate and explain the graph

A
  • the primary immune response is launched the first time the pathogen infects the body
  • the secondary immune response is launched the second time the pathogen infects the body
  • memory cells ensure that the second time the pathogen is encountered, the body is ready to respond rapidly by producing more antibodies at a faster rate
46
Q

Vaccine

A
  • Contain antigens that trigger immunity but do not cause the disease
  • Live attenuated (weakened) version of the pathogen
47
Q

Outline how vaccination works

A
  • Ingject a weakened or dead pathogen
  • Stimulates a primary immune response
  • If the actual microorganism enters the body, it will be destroyed quickly in a secondary immune response
48
Q

State the first infectious disease that have been eradicated by vaccination

A

Smallpox

49
Q

Outline the three reasons for the successful eradication of smallpox

A
  • Only humans can catch and transmit the disease
  • Symptoms emerge quickly and are readily visible
  • Immunity to smallpox is long-lasting
50
Q

Epidemiology

A

Study of distribution, patterns, and causes of disease in a population

51
Q

Give an example of species-specific disease

A
  • Syphilis, polio and measles are specific to humans
52
Q

Give an example of cross specifies disease

A
  • Avian flu, swine flu, zoonosis, bubonic plague
53
Q

Mast cells

A

Immune cells found in connective tissue that secrete histamine in response to infection

54
Q

Histamine

A
  • Released by mast cells and basophils (that circulate in the blood)
  • Causes the dilation of the small blood vessels in the infected area
  • Increases the flow of fluid containing immune components to the infected area, leading to specific and non-specific immune responses
  • Contributes to a number of symptoms of allergic reactions
55
Q

What causes allergic symptoms

A

Histamine

56
Q

What are some allergic symptoms

A
  • Itching
  • Inflammation
  • Fluid build-up
  • Sneezing
  • Mucus secretion
  • Rashes
  • Dangerous swelling (leading to anaphylaxis)
57
Q

Monoclonal antibodies

A
  • Highly specific, purified antibodies that are produced by a clone of cells
  • Recognize only one antigen
58
Q

Hybridoma cell

A

Fusion of a tumour cell with an antibody-producing plasma cell

59
Q

Describe the produce of producing monoclonal antibodies

A
  • Antigen recognized by the antibody is injected into a mammal
  • The immune system of the mammal makes plasma B cells producing specific antibody
  • Plasma cells are removed and fused with cancer cells
60
Q

Why are cancer cells used in the production of antibodies

A

Reproduce rapidly

61
Q

Name some diagnostic tests that use monoclonal antibodies

A
  • HIV antibodies
  • Heart attack
  • Pregnancy test
62
Q

Describe how preganacy test strip works

A
  • Immobilized antibodies to hCG (point C)
  • Free antibodies to hCG attached to a dye (point B)
  • Immobilized antibodies that bind to the dye-bearing antibodies (point D)
  • Urine applied to the ened of the strip washes antibodies down the strip
63
Q

human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG)

A
  • Uniquely produced during pregnancy by the developing embryo and later the placenta
  • The urine of a pregnant woman contains detectable levels of hCG

IB Biology HL (23 decks)

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