Research Methods - The Experimental and Non-Experimental Methods

Question 1

What is an experiment?

Answer 1

A study that investigates a cause and effect relationship, by comparing the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable in groups of different levels of the independent variable.

Question 2

What is a laboratory experiment?

Answer 2

A procedure staged in an artificial, highly controlled environment. It doesn’t necessarily have to be a laboratory, but it does have to be well controlled. The researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV.

Question 3

What are the strengths of a laboratory experiment?

Answer 3

• There is high control over extraneous variables so the researcher can ensure that the changes in IV caused the effect on the DV. Therefore, the study demonstrates cause and effect (a high internal validity).
• Replication is more possible than in other types of experiment because of the high level of control (ensures new extraneous variables are not introduced when repeating an experiment). This is important to check that the results are valid and not just one-off.

Question 4

What are the weaknesses of a laboratory experiment?

Answer 4

• Considered reductionist because it isolates only the variables under consideration, ignoring other variables.
• May lack generalisability because the lab environment is artificial and not like everyday life (participants might behave in unusual ways). This means their behaviour can’t be generalised beyond the research setting (low external - ecological - validity).
• Participants are usually aware that they are being tested in a lab so they might behave unnaturally (demand characteristics).
• The tasks participants carry out in a lab might not represent real-life experience (low mundane realism).

Question 5

What is a field experiment?

Answer 5

A procedure staged in a naturalistic environment. The researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV.

Question 6

What are the strengths of a field experiment?

Answer 6

• Have higher mundane realism than lab experiments because the environment is more natural.
• Produces behaviour that is more valid and authentic, especially as participants might not know they are being studied (high external validity).

Question 7

What are the weaknesses of a field experiment?

Answer 7

• Field experiments have less control over extraneous variables. This means cause and effect between the IV and DV is much harder to establish and replication is often not possible.
• There are ethical issues. If the participants don’t know they’re being studied, they cannot give their consent and so the research might invade their privacy.

Question 8

What is a natural experiment?

Answer 8

A study that examines a naturally occurring variable in a real-life situation. The researcher takes advantage of an existing change and does not manipulate the IV.

Question 9

What are the strengths of a natural experiment?

Answer 9

• The IV is naturally occuring and not manipulated.
• Allows research to take place that might not be ethical or practical otherwise.
• High external validity because they involve the study of real-life issues and problems as they happen.

Question 10

What are the weaknesses of a natural experiment?

Answer 10

• Extraneous variables are difficult to control, and may also be confounding variables, reducing the internal validity of the experiment.
• A naturally occuring event might happen very rarely, reducing the opportunities for research. This also means that there is less scope for generalising findings to other situations.
• Participants can’t be randomly allocated to experimental conditions, which means the researcher might be less sure that the IV affects the DV.

Question 11

What is a quasi experiment?

Answer 11

A study that examines an existing difference between people, where the independent variable can’t be manipulated and randomly allocated to groups because it’s a personal characteristic of the participants.

Question 12

What are the strengths of a quasi experiment?

Answer 12

• They are the only way to study the effect of an IV that is a fixed personal characteristic of the participants (they enable researchers to study variables that can’t be studied in a lab or field experiment).
• Often carried out under controlled conditions and therefore share the same strengths as a lab experiment.
• Less chance for bias as there’s no manipulation by the researcher.

Question 13

What are the weaknesses of a quasi experiment?

Answer 13

• Participants cannot be randomly allocated to the experimental conditions and therefore there might be confounding variables (e.g. participant variables).
• Reduces internal validity, making it harder to establish cause and effect.

Question 14

What is an overt observation?

Answer 14

When participants are aware of being studied.

Question 15

What is a covert observation?

Answer 15

When participants are unaware of being watched.

Question 16

What is a participant observation?

Answer 16

When the researcher becomes part of the group they are studying.

Question 17

What is a non-participant observation?

Answer 17

When the researcher remains separated from the group.

Question 18

What is a controlled observation?

Answer 18

When there is some control/maniupulation of variables, including control of extraneous variables.

Question 19

What is a naturalistic observation?

Answer 19

When the experiment takes place where the target behaviour would normally occur.

Question 20

What are the advantages of an overt observation?

Answer 20

• more ethically acceptable
• participants have given their consent to be studied
• they have the right to withdraw if they wish

Question 21

What are the disadvantages of a overt observation?

Answer 21

• demand characteristics
• knowledge of being studied influences behaviour
• reduces the validity of the findings

Question 22

What are the advantages of a covert observation?

Answer 22

• demand characteristics reduced

- participants do not know they are being watched so their behaviour will be more natural, increasing the validity

Question 23

What are the disadvantages of a covert observation?

Answer 23

• ethically questionable
• people may not want their behaviour recorded, even in public
• participants’ right to privacy may be affected

Question 24

What are the advantages of a participant observation?

Answer 24

• can lead to greater insight
• researcher experiences the situation as the participants do
• this enhances the validity of the findings

Question 25

What are the disadvantages of a participant observation?

Answer 25

• possible loss of objectivity
• the researcher may identify too strongly with those they are studying
• this threatens the validity and objectivity of the findings

Question 26

What are the advantages of a non-participant observation?

Answer 26

• more objective
• researcher maintains an objective distance so there’s less chance of bias
• may increase the validity of the findings

Question 27

What are the disadvantages of a non-participant observation?

Answer 27

• loss of insight
• researcher may be too far removed from those they are studying
• may reduce the validity of the findings

Question 28

What are the advantages of a controlled observation?

Answer 28

• can be replicated
• more easily repeated due to standardised procedures
• findings can be checked to see if they occur again

Question 29

What are the disadvantages of a controlled observation?

Answer 29

• may have low external validity
• behaviour may be contrived as a result of the setting
• findings cannot be applied to everyday experience

Question 30

What are the advantages of a naturalistic observation?

Answer 30

• high external validity
• in a natural context, behaviour is likely to be more spontaneous
• more generalisable to everyday life

Question 31

What are the disadvantages of a naturalistic observation?

Answer 31

• low control
• there may be uncontrolled extraneous variables
• makes it more difficult to detect patterns

Question 32

What is an unstructured observation?

Answer 32

Everything is recorded, which can be quite difficult if a lot is going on.

Question 33

What is a structured observation?

Answer 33

Includes behavioural categories and sampling methods.

Question 34

What are observational techniques?

Answer 34

A way of seeing or listening to what people do without having to ask them. Observation is often used within an experiment as a way of assessing the dependent variable.

Question 35

What are the advantages of observational techniques?

Answer 35

Can capture unexpected behaviours. People often act differently from how they say they will in self-report methods. Observations are useful as they give insight into spontaneous behaviours.

Question 36

What are the disadvantages of observational techniques?

Answer 36

Risk of observer bias. Researcher’s interpretation of the situation may be affected by expectations. Bias can be reduced using more than one observer.

Question 37

What is an association?

Answer 37

Illustrates the strength and direction of an association between two co-variables.

Question 38

What is a scattergram?

Answer 38

Correlations are plotted on a scattergram. One co-variable is on the x-axis, the other is on the y-axis.

Question 39

What are the 3 types of correlation?

Answer 39

Positive correlation - when one variable increases, so does the other variable but not always in direct proportion
Negative correlation - when one variable increases, the other variable decreases but not always in direct proportion
Zero correlation - no relationship between the two variables

Question 40

What are the differences between correlations and experiments?

Answer 40

• In an experiment, the effect of an IV is recorded on the DV. In a correlation, you are measuring the relationship between two co-variables and so cause and effect cannot be demonstrated.
• In a correlation, the influence of EVs is not controlled, so it may be that a third ‘untested’ variable is causing the relationship between the co-variables (called an intervening variable).

Question 41

What are the strengths of correlations?

Answer 41

It’s a useful starting point for research. By assessing the strength and direction of a relationship, correlations provide a precise measure of how two variables are related. If variables are strongly related, it may suggest hypotheses for future research.

It is relatively economical. Unlike a lab study, there is no need for a controlled environment and no manipulation of variables is required. Using co-variables rather than manipulation is less interventionist and therefore likely to be more ethical. Correlations are also less time-consuming than experiments, and may be more practical.

Question 42

What are the weaknesses of correlations?

Answer 42

You cannot establish a cause and effect relationship. We cannot say that one variable causes the other, because it could be the other way around, or a third variable that hasn’t been studied could be exerting an influence. Correlations are often presented as causal, when they only show how two variables are related.

The method used to measure variables may be flawed. For example, the method used to work out an aggression score might be low in reliability (observational categories might have been used). This would reduce the validity of the correlational study.

Question 43

What are questionnaires?

Answer 43

Questionnaires are made up of a pre-set list of written questions (or items) to which a participant responds. They can be used as part of an experiment to assess the dependent variable.

Question 44

What are the advantages of questionnaires?

Answer 44

• Can be distributed to lots of people. Can gather large amounts of data quickly and the researcher need not be present when completed. Reduces the effort involved and makes questionnaires cost-effective.
• Respondents may be willing to “open-up”. Respondents may share more personal information than in an interview as they are less self-conscious. There may be less chance of social desirability bias compared to an interview.
• Ethical as people can choose not to complete them.
• There is no interviewer effect or social desirability bias.

Question 45

What are the disadvantages of questionnaires?

Answer 45

• Responses may not always be truthful. Respondents tend to present themselves in a positive light. Thus social desirability bias is still possible.
• Response bias. Respondents may favour a particular kind of response, e.g. they always agree. This means that all respondents tend to reply in a similar way.
• Response rate is low because people don’t have the time or inclination to complete and return the questionnaires.

Question 46

How do you write good questions?

Answer 46

• Avoid jargon: Do you agree that maternal deprivation in infanthood inevitably leads to affectionless psychopathy?
• Avoid double-barrelled questions: Do you agree that footballers are overpaid and should give 20% of their wages to charity?
• Avoid leading questions: Do you agree that boxing is barbaric?

Question 47

What are closed-ended questions?

Answer 47

Designed with a pre-set list of answers. Respondent has limited choices.

Question 48

What are the advantages of close-ended questions?

Answer 48

Quantitative data is objective and easier to analyse. Can produce graphs and charts for comparison. Makes it easier to draw conclusions.

Question 49

What are the disadvantages of close-ended questions?

Answer 49

Respondents are restricted. The right answer may not be available as so they may be forced into an answer that isn’t representative of true feelings. This would reduce the validity of the findings. They also may want to elaborate on their answers.

Question 50

What are open-ended questions?

Answer 50

Respondents provide their own answers expressed in words, allowing them to answer freely.

Question 51

What are the advantages of open-ended questions?

Answer 51

Respondents aren’t restricted. Answers are more likely to provide detailed, unpredictable information. Likely to have more validity than statistics.

Question 52

What are the disadvantages of open-ended questions?

Answer 52

Qualitative data is difficult to analyse and is open to interpretation. There’s a wider variety of answers that it produced than by quantitative data. You may be forced to reduce data to statistics.

Question 53

What are interviews?

Answer 53

An interview is a non-experimental method as it doesn’t manipulate an IV directly. It’s designed to gain information directly from participants (face-to-face interaction between an interviewer and interviewee).

Question 54

What are the advantages of interviews?

Answer 54

They gather information about a person’s beliefs, findings, attitudes and opinions in depth.

Question 55

What are the disadvantages of interviews?

Answer 55

• Social desirability bias; participants may answer with what they think is socially acceptable.
• Interviewer effect; the characteristics of the interviewer may impact the answers provided.

Question 56

What is a structured interview?

Answer 56

A standardised list of pre-determined questions that a respondent is asked. A strict interview schedule is followed so respondents are asked the same questions in the same order. More suitable for large-scale studies.

Question 57

What is a semi-structured interview?

Answer 57

A list of questions that have been prepared in advance that is used as a framework. Interviewers are free to ask follow up questions and explore points of discussion where appropriate.

Question 58

What is an unstructured interview?

Answer 58

Does not have prepared questions or a schedule to follow. There is a general topic to be discussed but the interaction is free flowing and the interviewee is encouraged to elaborate, as the interviewer directs questions based on answers. More suitable for in-depth information from a small group of people.

Question 59

What are the advantages of a structured interview?

Answer 59

• Easy to replicate because of the standardised format. The format also reduces differences between interviewers.
• Little training is required.
• Lots of information can be gathered quickly.

Question 60

What are the disadvantages of a structured interview?

Answer 60

• Interviewees cannot deviate from the topic or elaborate their points. This may be a source of frustration for some.
• Only superficial information can be accessed.

Question 61

What are the advantages of a semi-structured interview?

Answer 61

• Gives respondents freedom to answer in their own way.

- Interviewers can deviate from the interview schedule to explore the conversation if necessary.

Question 62

What are the disadvantages of a semi-structured interview?

Answer 62

• It is time-consuming to carry out.

- Training is required to know how to conduct.

Question 63

What are the advantages of an unstructured interview?

Answer 63

• Gathers the most in-depth information.
• There is greater flexibility. Unlike a structured interview, points can be followed up as they arise. More likely to gain insight into interviewee’s worldview.

Question 64

What are the disadvantages of an unstructured interview?

Answer 64

• Difficult to replicate. Such interviews lack structure and are not standardised.
• Greater risk of interviewer bias.
• Time-consuming.
• Interviewers need to be well trained.

Question 65

What is the design of interviews?

Answer 65

Interview schedule - A standardised list of questions that the interviewer needs to cover. Can reduce interviewer bias.

Quiet room - Will increase the likelihood that the interviewee will open up.

Rapport - Begin with neutral questions to make participants feel relaxed.

Ethics - Remind interviewees that answers will be treated in confidence.

Question 66

What are correlational studies?

Answer 66

A way of establishing whether there is a relationship between two variables. Assessing the strength and direction of that relationship. Unlike experiments, correlational studies do not tell you about causal relationships (we cannot say that it is because one factor varies that the other factor increases/ decreases).

Question 67

What is a correlational co-efficient?

Answer 67

A statistical method for assessing the strength of a correlation. The sign (+ or -) tells you the direction of the correlation. The number (between 0 and 1) tells you the strength.

Question 68

What are the differences between correlations and experiments?

Answer 68

• In an experiment, the researcher records the effect of an ID on a DV. In a correlation, you look at the relationship between two co-variables and so cause and effect cannot be demonstrated.
• In a correlation, the influence of EVs is not controlled, so it may be that a third ‘untested’ variable is causing the relationship between the co-variables (called an intervening variable).

Question 69

What are case studies?

Answer 69

• detailed, in-depth, longitudinal
• of an individual, institution or group of people
• small sample size usually
• unusual and also typical cases
• uses multiple techniques to research (e.g. interviews, observation, experiment, MRI/PET scans, post-mortem)
• qualitative (mainly) and quantitative data
• triangulate results (multiple sources of data)

Question 70

What are the strengths of case studies?

Answer 70

• In-depth qualitative data. Such detail is likely to increase the validity of the data collected.
• Enables study of unusual behaviour. Some behaviours/conditions are very rare and cannot be studied using other methods. In addition, some cases can help understanding of ‘normal’ functioning.
• Single case study can generate further research.
• Single case study can undermine existing theories.

Question 71

What are the weaknesses of case studies?

Answer 71

• Prone to researcher bias. Conclusions are based on the subjective interpretation of the researcher. This may reduce the validity of the study.
• Participants’ accounts may be biased. Personal accounts (from participants and family) may be prone to inaccuracy/memory decay. Therefore evidence provided may be low in validity.
• Lack of generalisability.
• Unscientific/unreliable (lack of applicability).

Question 72

What is the difference between case study and case history?

Answer 72

A case history is the record of information that is collected about a person or group. It is something that a doctor or social worker might prepare but it also is an important component of a case study.

The term ‘case study’ refers to the research methods used to collect information about the case being studied - observation, interviews, psychological tests. It is the methods that are used for data collection and analysis.

Question 73

What is content analysis?

Answer 73

Content analysis is a type of observational research. People are studied indirectly via the communications they have produced.

This may include:

• spoken interaction (e.g. a speech or conversation)
• written forms (e.g. texts or email)
• examples from the media (e.g. books, magazines, TV)

Question 74

What is coding?

Answer 74

Coding may produce quantitative data.

Coding is the first stage of content analysis. Some data sets may be extremely large (such as the transcripts of several dozen lengthy interviews).

So information needs to be categorised into meaningful units. This may involve counting up the number of times a particular word or phrase appears in the text to produce quantitative data.

For instance, newspaper reports may be analysed for the number of times derogatory terms for the mentally ill are used, such as “crazy” or “mad”.

Question 75

What is thematic analysis?

Answer 75

Thematic analysis produces qualitative data.

A theme in content analysis refers to any idea that is recurrent, i.e. it keeps cropping up in the communication being studied. These themes are more descriptive than the coding units.

For instance, the mentally ill may be represented in newspapers as a “threat to our children” or as a “drain on the NHS”. Such themes may then be developed into broader categories, such as “control” or “stereotyping” of the mentally ill.

Question 76

What are the strengths of content analysis?

Answer 76

Many ethical issues may not apply. The material to study (e.g. TV adverts, films, etc.) may already be in the public domain. So there are no issues with obtaining consent, for example.

A flexible method. Content analysis can be adapted to produce both quantitative and qualitative data as required. This means it is a flexible approach that can be adapted to suit the aims of the research.

Question 77

What are the weaknesses of content analysis?

Answer 77

Communication is studied out of context. The researcher may attribute motivations to the speaker or writer that were not intended. This is likely to reduce the validity of the conclusions drawn.

Content analysis may lack objectivity, especially when more descriptive forms of thematic analysis are used. Such bias may threaten the validity of the findings and conclusions. However, reflexivity is a method of addressing the lack of objectivity. Personal viewpoints are seen as an important part of the data collected.