Prelims bits - 4 Flashcards
laws regulating FDI inflows
Companies Act
Securities and Exchange Board of India Act, 1992 and SEBI Regulations
Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA)
Foreign Trade (Development and Regulation) Act, 1992
Civil Procedure Code, 1908
Indian Contract Act, 1872
Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996
Competition Act, 2002
Income Tax Act, 1961
Foreign Direct Investment Policy (FDI Policy)
Government Authorities in India concerning FDI
Foreign Investment Promotion Board (FIPB)
Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT)
Reserve Bank of India (RBI)
Directorate General of Foreign Trade (DGFT)
Ministry of Corporate Affairs, Government of India
Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI)
Income Tax Department
Several Ministries of the GOI such as Power, Information & Communication, Energy, etc.
monotreme or egg laying mammals
Monotremes are mammals that lay eggs (Prototheria) instead of giving birth to live young like marsupials (Metatheria) and placental mammals (Eutheria).
There are only five living monotreme species: the duck-billed platypus and four species of echidna (also known as spiny anteaters). All of them are found only in Australia and New Guinea.
Monotremes are the only group of mammals that lay eggs, i.e. they are oviparous, laying one to three eggs. They have a single posterior opening, the cloaca, for excretion and reproduction. The name monotreme means one-holed.
Monotremes resemble other mammals in producing milk to nourish their young, in having three inner ear bones and a single bone in the lower jaw. Monotremes are highly specialized feeders and the adults have no teeth
Boreal biome
Taiga, also called boreal forest is a biome (major life zone) of vegetation composed primarily of cone-bearing needle leaved or scale leaved evergreen trees, found in northern circumpolar forested regions characterized by long winters and moderate to high annual precipitation.
The tree line is the edge of the habitat at which trees are capable of growing. It is found at high elevations and high latitudes. Beyond the tree line, trees cannot tolerate the environmental conditions. It occurs at the northern flank of the taiga ecosystem. Beyond the tree line, tundra ecosystem is present.
Soils in the boreal forest are typically podzols, gray soils that are thin, acidic, and poor in nutrients. These soils lie beneath a mat of coniferous tree needles and other organic material that accumulates due to the slow decomposition rates and limited soil microorganism activity that occurs in the cold climate. Tannins and other acidic compounds from this layer cause the upper layers of soil to become acidic.
Boreal forests have lower productivity than tropical or temperate forests; they also have less diversity, with only a tree layer and ground layer. Temperatures in the arctic tundra are cold year-round and precipitation is very low. However their primary productivity is much higher than tundra.
Byssinosis
Byssinosis is a rare lung disease. It’s caused by inhaling hemp, flax, and cotton particles and is sometimes referred to as brown lung disease. It’s a form of occupational asthma.
In the United States, byssinosis occurs almost exclusively in people who work with unprocessed cotton. People who open bales of cotton during the first stage of processing are at the highest risk. There’s also a type of byssinosis called grain worker’s lung that appears in people who work with grains.
Patients with byssinosis usually have difficulty with cough and feelings of chest tightness. Some develop “Monday fever” when they are exposed to the dust as they return to work after a break.
The symptoms improve over the course of the week, and usually cause no long-term effects if the exposure is stopped. However, permanent damage and difficulty in breathing can occur with continued exposure. Most people with symptoms have had exposure for more than 10 years.
Global Smart Cities Alliance on Technology Governance
Recently, India has joined the G20 Global Smart Cities Alliance on Technology Governance. The G20 Global Smart Cities Alliance is a league of 15 of the world’s leading city networks and technology governance organizations that will work towards advancing responsible and ethical use of smart city technologies.
The aim of the alliance is to promote the responsible and ethical use of smart city technologies by establishing global norms and policy standards for the use of connected devices in public spaces. Currently, there is no global framework or set of rules in place for how sensor data collected in public spaces, such as by traffic cameras, is used. The effort aims to foster greater openness and trust as well as create standards for how this data is collected and used.
Global Smart Cities Alliance will advance how technology is used in public places and promote core principles including transparency, privacy and security
The alliance unites municipal, regional and national governments, private-sector partners and cities’ residents around a shared set of core guiding principles for the implementation of smart city technologies. The World Economic Forum, the International Organization for Public-Private Cooperation, has been selected to act as the secretariat for a new G20 Global Smart Cities Alliance.
Global Smart Cities Alliance’s founding set of institutional partners include the presidents and host nations of the Group of 20 (G20) in 2019 and 2020; Japan and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia; the Smart City Mission of India; Cities for All; Cities Today Institute; Commonwealth Local Government Forum; Commonwealth Sustainable Cities Network among others.
biomagnification
Biomagnification refers to the tendency of pollutants to concentrate as they move from one tropic level to the next. Thus in biomagnification there is an increase in concentration of a pollutant from one link in a food chain to another.
In order to bimagnification to occur, the pollutant must be long lived, mobile and soluble in fats. If pollutant is short lived, it will be broken down before it can become dangerous.
If it is not mobile, it will stay in one place and unlikely to be taken up by the organism. Pollutants that dissolve in fats, however, may be retained for a long time.
It is traditional to measure the amount of pollutants in fatty tissues of organism such as fish. In mammals, we often test the milk produced by females, since the milk has a lot of fat in it are often more susceptible to damage from toxins( poisons).
pyrolysis and gasification
Pyrolysis and gasification are two important processes that are used to decompose materials. Both these processes are different from combustion because the combustion is carried out in the presence of an excessive amount of oxygen.
What is Pyrolysis?
Pyrolysis is the process of thermal conversion of organic matter using a catalyst in the absence of oxygen or near absence. Therefore, it is the decomposition of material in an inert atmosphere. It is a chemical reaction that includes alteration of the chemical composition of the material. Moreover, it is a reversible process.
In pyrolysis, what we do is heating a material to a temperature above its decomposition temperature. It breaks down the chemical bonds of the material.
Therefore, this process usually forms small molecules from large fragments. But, these small molecules can combine, forming large molecular masses as well. For example, pyrolysis of triglycerides form alkanes, alkenes, alkadienes, aromatics and carboxylic acids.
Moreover, the process proceeds at temperatures ranging from 350°C – 600°C
What is Gasification?
Gasification is a thermo-chemical process that converts biomass into a combustible gas called producer gas (syngas). Here, the materials decompose in an environment where a little amount of oxygen is present. However, this amount of oxygen is not enough for combustion. The products of gasification are heat and combustible gas. The process proceeds at temperatures ranging from 800°C – 1200°C.
The principle components in the combustible gas that forms during this process include carbon monoxide and hydrogen gas. In addition, there are some other components such as water vapour, carbon dioxide, tar vapour, ash, etc.
Moreover, pyrolysis is useful for applications in food manufacturing, i.e. caramelization, production of fuel from biomass, production of ethylene, to treat plastic waste, etc. while gasification is useful for heat production, production of electricity, etc.
Pradhan Mantri Innovative Learning Programme: DHRUV
started by Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India to identify and encourage talented children to enrich their skills and knowledge. In centres of excellence across the country, gifted children will be mentored and nurtured by renowned experts in different areas, so that they can reach their full potential.
The first batch of DHRUV programme was implemented during October 2019.
60 outstandingly talented students were selected in the first batch of DHRUV programme. To begin with, two areas i.e. Science and Performing Arts were covered. There were 60 students in all, 30 from each area. The 60 students came from across the country. The students have been broadly chosen from classes 9 to 12, from all schools including government and private.
Dioxins and furans
Dioxin and furan are chlorinated aromatic compounds having tremendous toxic effects, carcinogenicity and persistence in the environment; hence these Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) are real threats to the environment and existence of mankind.
These compounds do not occur naturally, nor they are produced intentionally. In fact these are the byproducts of industrial and pollution control related operations, barring few catastrophic or accidental origins like volcanoes, forest fires and accidental fires etc.
Sources:
Municipal Solid Waste Incinerator,
Open burning of domestic waste,
Bio-Medical waste incinerators and hazardous waste incinerators,
Industrial boilers and furnaces,
Petroleum refining,
Biogas combustion and landfill gas combustion,
Candles, Crematoriums, Cigarette smoking,
PVC manufacturing,
Dyes and pigments,
Motor vehicle fuel combustion (Diesel and gasoline), Coal combustion for industrial, residential and commercial purposes.
uses of Algae
commercially cultivated for Pharmaceuticals, Nutraceuticals, Cosmetics and Aquaculture purpose. Humans use algae as food, for production of useful compounds, as biofilters to remove nutrients and other pollutants from wastewaters, to assay water quality, as indicators of environmental change, in space technology, and as laboratory research systems.
Carbon Dioxide Fixation: Like any other plant, algae, when grown using sunlight, consume (or absorb) carbon dioxide (CO2) as they grow, releasing oxygen (O2). For high productivity, algae require more CO2, which can be supplied by emissions sources such as power plants, ethanol facilities, and other sources.
Bio-fuel & Oil extraction: Algae can be used to make Biodiesel (see algaculture), Bioethanol and biobutanol and can produce vastly superior amounts of vegetable oil, compared to terrestrial crops grown for the same purpose.
Purification of wastewater: Algae thrive in nutrient-rich waters like municipal waste waters (sewage), animal wastes and some industrial effluents, at the same time purifying these wastes while producing a biomass suitable for biofuels production.
Food Supplements: Algae are national foods of many nations: China consumes more than 70 species, including fat choy, a cyanobacterium considered a vegetable; Japan, over 20 species; Ireland, dulse; Chile, cochayuyo. Laver is used to make “laver bread” in Wales where it is known as bara lawr; in Korea, gim; in Japan, nori and aonori. It is also used along the west coast of North America from California to British Columbia, in Hawaii and by the Māori of New Zealand.
syngas
India’s first coal gasification based fertiliser plant to be set up in Talcher, Odisha.
Coal gasification
It is one of the clean coal technologies and involves the process of converting coal into synthesis gas (also called syngas).
Syngas
It is an abbreviation for synthesis gas, which is a mixture comprising carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen.
The syngas is produced by gasification of a carbon-containing fuel to a gaseous product that has some heating value. Some of the examples of syngas production include gasification of coal emissions, waste emissions to energy gasification, and steam reforming of coke.
The by-products of coal gasification include coke, coal tar, sulfur, ammonia and fly ash, all having their own potential uses. CO2 and ammonia are further reacted to produce urea.
Syngas can also be used in a variety of other applications such as in the production of electricity, fuel for IC engines, making plastics, cement etc. It can also be an intermediate in the industrial synthesis of ammonia and fertilizer.
The move towards the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions with the use of syngas as a fuel for
the production of electricity is predicted to grow sharply in the near future as a result of:
• global warming and ocean surface acidification, which imply the need to control and
reduce greenhouse gas emission,
• the low estimated reserves of oil, and
• rising cost as well as demand for natural gas and the need to reduce the dependence on
fossil fuel imports from unstable areas.
Process of coal gasification
The general raw materials used for gasification (creation of syngas) are coal, petroleum-based materials, or other materials that would be rejected as waste. From these materials, a feedstock is prepared. This is inserted into the gasifier in dry or slurry form. In the gasifier, this feedstock reacts in an oxygen-starved environment with steam at elevated pressure and temperature. The resultant syngas is composed of 85% carbon monoxide and hydrogen and small amounts of methane and carbon dioxide.
Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs (CCEA) has approved Pradhan Mantri JI-VAN Yojana
“Pradhan Mantri JI-VAN (Jaiv Indhan- Vatavaran Anukool fasal awashesh Nivaran) Yojana” for providing financial support to Integrated Bioethanol Projects using lignocellulosic biomass and other renewable feedstock.
Financial Implications:
The JI-VAN Yojana will be supported with total financial outlay of Rs.1969.50 crore for the period from 2018-19 to 2023-24. Out of scheme fund of Rs.1969.50 crore, Rs.1800 crore has been allocated for supporting 12 Commercial projects, Rs.150 crore has been allocated for supporting 10 demonstration Projects and remaining Rs.9.50 crore will be provided to Centre for High Technology (CHT) as administrative charges.
Details of the scheme
Under this Yojana, 12 Commercial Scale and 10 demonstration scale Second Generation (2G) ethanol Projects will be provided a Viability Gap Funding (VGF) support in two phases:
a) Phase-I (2018-19 to 2022-23): wherein six commercial projects and five demonstration projects will be supported.
b) Phase-II (2020-21 to 2023-24): wherein remaining six commercial projects and five demonstration projects will be supported.
The scheme focuses to incentivise 2G Ethanol sector and support this nascent industry by creating a suitable ecosystem for setting up commercial projects and increasing Research & Development in this area.
Other objectives of the scheme
Meeting Government of India vision of reducing import dependence by way of substituting fossil fuels with Biofuels
Achieving the GHG emissions reduction targets through progressive blending/ substitution of fossil fuels.
Addressing environment concerns caused due to burning of biomass/ crop residues & improve health of citizens.
Improving farmer income by providing them remunerative income for their otherwise waste agriculture residues.
Creating rural & urban employment opportunities in 2G Ethanol projects and Biomass supply chain
Contributing to Swacch Bharat Mission by supporting the aggregation of nonfood biofuel feedstocks such as waste biomass and urban waste
Indigenizing of Second Generation Biomass to Ethanol technologies
The ethanol produced by the scheme beneficiaries will be mandatorily supplied to Oil Marketing Companies (OMCs) to further enhance the blending percentage under EBP Programme.
Danuvius
Fossils were recently unearthed in southern Germany of a remarkable ape that lived about 11.6 million years ago may dramatically alter the understanding of the evolutionary origins of a fundamental human trait - walking upright on two legs.
Scientists said the ape, called Danuvius guggenmosi, combined attributes of humans - straight lower limbs adapted for bipedalism - with those of apes - long arms able to stretch out to grasp tree branches. That indicates Danuvius was able to walk upright on two legs and also use all four limbs while clambering through trees.
It is the oldest-known example of upright walking in apes. The discovery suggests that bipedalism originated in a common ancestor of humans and the great apes - a group that includes chimpanzees, bonobos, gorillas and orangutans - that inhabited Europe rather than an ancestor from Africa, the continent where our species Homo sapiens first appeared roughly 300,000 years ago.
Until now, the oldest fossil evidence of bipedalism in humankind’s evolutionary tree dated to about 6 million years ago: fossils from Kenya of an extinct member of the human lineage called Orrorin tugenensis as well as footprints on the Mediterranean island of Crete. If Danuvius turns out to be ancestral to humans, that would mean that some of its descendants at some point made their way to Africa.
Extended Producer Responsibility
Extended producer responsibility, a practice and a policy approach in which producers take responsibility for management of the disposal of products they produce once those products are designated as no longer useful by consumers. Responsibility for disposal may be fiscal, physical, or a combination of the two.
Motivations for extended producer responsibility practices include a mixture of economic, environmental, and social factors. Extended producer responsibility shifts the economic burden of the cost of disposal from the government to the producer of the product. Within an environmental context, products must be designed for recyclability, and extended producer responsibility encourages design for recycling while discouraging the use of toxic components in the product. Finally, extended producer responsibility meets increasing consumer demand for environmentally friendly products that can easily be recycled or are manufactured using recycled content. Extended producer responsibility is a product-focused strategy that encourages environmentally friendly design and disposal of products through transfer of this responsibility to product producers.
The intergovernmental Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development’s (OECD) definition of extended producer responsibility identifies two specific features: the shifting of responsibility for disposal “upstream” from municipalities to producers and encouragement through incentives to make the design of products more environmentally friendly.
They are separate species of organisms that are related through their capability of interbreeding. They are able to exchange genes among themselves to a limited extent through hybridization.
The species in the above passage are best described by which of the following?
(a) Cenospecies
(b) Cryptic Species
(c) Monotypic species
(d) Sibling species
Cenospecies: They are separate species of organisms that are related through their capability of interbreeding, such as dogs and wolves. A cenospecies contains all those ecospecies so related that they are able to exchange genes among themselves to a limited extent through hybridization. Hence option (a) is the correct answer.
Cryptic species: The species which are alike on the basis of observed features but are genetically and sexually they are different are cryptic species. There is a confusion between the terms sibling species and cryptic species. The cryptic species are incapable of interbreeding but the sibling species can interbreed and are incapable of producing fertile hybrids.
Monotypic species: When a genus includes a single species but does not include any subspecies, e.g., Vampyroteuthis, a vampire squid which is a single monotypic genus and also contains a single species, V. infernalis (monotypic species). Blackwelder (1967) states that the species with a single subspecies, called monotypic species.
Sibling species: Two or more than two closely related species which are morphologically alike but behaviourally or reproductively isolated from each other. Examples are Drosophila persimilis and D. pseudoobscura. The mosquito Anopheles maculipennis complex consists of several subspecies, of which a few are vector of malaria and the rest are harmless.
Food Safety Mitra (FSM)’ scheme
FSSAI is creating an ecosystem of Food Safety Mitras (FSMs) who will help food business operators (FBOs) with licensing and registration, training and auditing hygiene at different institutions such as schools, colleges and corporate campuses.
The FSM scheme will help to strengthen food safety administration and scale up the ‘Eat Right India’ movement.
The ‘Food Safety Mitra (FSM)’ scheme will support small and medium scale food businesses to comply with the food safety laws and facilitate licensing and registration, hygiene ratings and training. Apart from strengthening food safety, this scheme would also create new employment opportunities for youth, particularly with food and nutrition background. The FSMs would undergo training and certification by FSSAI to do their work and get paid by food businesses for their services.
The scheme has no provision related to testing of GM crops.
Thiruvalluvar
Thiruvalluvar is a celebrated ancient Tamil poet and philosopher, and the author of the Thirukkural, a collection of rhyming couplets. His work has been acclaimed by philosophers, theologians and literary savants around the world. Saint Thiruvalluvar is believed to have been born near Chennai in BC 30, though exact time remains disputed.
Tyagaraja was a renowned composer of Carnatic music, born in 1767.
Thiruvalluvar composed Thirukkural, an ancient treatise on the Code of Ethics and Universal Human Values, in Tamil. Opinions are divergent regarding the age of Thirukkural, yet, majority concurs to that of, between 1st century BC and 2nd AD. This is adduced by the mention of Kural verses in Silapathikaram and Manimekalai, which were written during Tamil Sangam period of 2nd Century AD.
Recently, Thiruvalluvar was in the news for the tug of war going on with regard to his religious or sectarian affiliations. Some scholars consider him to be a proponent of Jainism and other consider him to be a propounder of Christianity.
Microbial fuel cells
microbial fuel cell (MFC) is a bio-electrochemical device that harnesses the power of respiring microbes to convert organic substrates directly into electrical energy. At its core, the MFC is a fuel cell, which transforms chemical energy into electricity using oxidation-reduction reactions. Microbial fuel cells are devices that use microbes, such as bacteria, as the catalysts to oxidize organic and inorganic matter and generate current.
Microbial fuel cells rely on living biocatalysts to facilitate the movement of electrons throughout their systems instead of the traditional chemically catalyzed oxidation of fuel at the anode and reduction at the cathode. The most promising MFC’s for commercialization in today’s energy industry are mediators MFC’s which use a special type of microorganism termed exoelectrogens. Exoelectrogens are electrochemically active bacteria.
The operational and functional advantages of MFCs are:
MFCs use organic waste matter as fuels and readily available microbes as catalysts.
MFCs do not require highly regulated distribution systems like the ones needed for Hydrogen Fuel Cells.
MFCs have high conversion efficiency as compared to Enzymatic Fuel Cells, in harvesting up to 90% of the electrons from the bacterial electron transport system.
Microbial fuel cells can be used in a variety of applications like-
to power a wide range of vital conservation tools remotely, including sensors, monitoring platforms, and camera traps.
in wastewater treatment: conditions of a wastewater treatment plant are ideal for the types of bacteria that can be used in an MFC. Exoelectrogens are more than happy to breakdown and metabolize the carbon-rich sewage of a wastewater stream to produce electrons that can stream into a cheap conductive carbon cloth anode.
Powering underwater monitoring devices.
Power supply to remote sensors.
BOD sensing- to use it as a sensor for pollutant analysis and in situ process monitoring and control.
Bio-hydrogen production
for the remediation of various environmental pollutants viz. antibiotics, synthetic dyes, phenolic compounds, nitrogen-based compounds, ethyl acetate, toluene, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, perchlorate, pesticide, sulphur, emerging contaminants, trace organic compounds etc.
Permafrost
perennially frozen soil that has been below 00C for at least two years. Permafrost is a condition where top layer upto depth of 20-40 cm is completely frozen. This happens in high latitude and altitude regions.
It’s found underneath about 25% of the northern hemisphere, mainly around the Arctic - but also in the Antarctic and Alpine regions. In the northern region of Alaska, the permafrost has been warming at about one-tenth of a degree Celsius per year since the mid 2000s.
These top soils melt due to global warming which is a great threat as there melt will aggravate the condition of global warming. As permafrost thaws, this carbon is released to the atmosphere in the form of methane, a powerful greenhouse gas. This process leads to more climate change and is an example of a positive feedback loop, which happens when warming causes changes that lead to even more warming.
As permafrost thaws, it can also cause substantial changes in the local ecosystem, altering the flow of water atop and through the soil, as well as what plant and animal life can thrive in the area.
It is a part of life in the frigid North Slope, underlying buildings, roads and other infrastructure. When it thaws, it can cause considerable damage. In Alaska, the warming of the permafrost has been linked to trees toppling, roads buckling and the development of sinkholes.
When permafrost melts, the land above it sinks or changes shape. Sinking land can damage buildings and infrastructure such as roads, airports, and water and sewer pipes. It also affects ecosystems.
GEMINI system
Union Minister of Earth Sciences has recently launched the Gagan Enabled Mariner’s Instrument for Navigation and Information (GEMINI) device.
GEMINI is a new satellite-based communication system that will alert deep-sea fishermen of upcoming disasters. It is a low cost device having a box-shaped receiver that has an antenna and in-built battery that can last three to four days.
It is based on GAGAN (GPS-Aided Geo Augmented Navigation) satellite system developed by the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) and AAI. The GAGAN satellite system consists of three geosynchronous satellites namely the GSAT-8, GSAT-10 and GSAT-15 and these three cover the entire Indian Ocean region constantly.
GEMINI device only allows one-way communication, that a fisherman only received the warning related to cyclones, high waves and tsunamis in the sea. It can’t be used by fishermen to make calls. The GEMINI device receives and transfers the data received from GAGAN satellite/s to a mobile through Bluetooth communication. A mobile application developed by INCOIS decodes and displays the information in nine regional languages.
developed by the Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS) in collaboration with the Airports Authority of India (AAI).
Presently, the fishermen receive advisories, forecasts and early warnings from a wide range of mechanisms such as Potential Fishing Zones (PFZ) advisories, ocean state forecasts, high wave alerts, tsunami and storm surge early warning services. However, all these messages can only get transmitted up to 10 to 12 km from the coast.GEMINI device will help in disseminating the information to fishermen who go in the sea beyond 50 nautical miles; sometimes up to 300 nautical miles and beyond to conduct multi day fishing.
bioindicators
Bioindicators are organisms, such as lichens, birds and bacteria, that are used to monitor the health of the environment. The organisms and organism associations are monitored for changes that may indicate a problem within their ecosystem. The changes can be chemical, physiological or behavioural. Bioindicators are relevant for Ecological health.
Bioindicators can be a measure, an index of measures, or a model that characterizes an ecosystem or one of its critical components. They are also a method of monitoring or detecting the negative impacts that industrial activity has on the environment. This information helps develop strategies that will prevent or lower such effects and make the industry more sustainable. The role of bioindicators in sustainable development will help ensure that industry leaves the smallest footprint possible on the environment.
Role of Bioindicators
If toxins are present, certain plants may not be able to grow in the area affected.
Monitoring population numbers of animals may indicate damage to the ecosystem in which they live.
Algae blooms are often used to indicate large increases of nitrates and phosphates in lakes and rivers.
If pollution causes the reduction of an important food source, the animals dependent on it for food may also decrease. Animals may also change their behaviour or physiology if a toxin is present.
The levels of certain liver enzymes in fish increase if they are exposed to pollutants in the water.
Few tolerant species like tubifex and insect larvae may survive in highly polluted water with low dissolved oxygen content . Hence they indicate polluted water
Microorganisms can also be used as indicators of toxins in an ecosystem. Some microorganisms will produce stress proteins if exposed to certain pollutants. By measuring the levels of stress proteins, we can get an idea of the level of pollution present in the environment.
Examples of bioindicators : lichens , tubifex , insect larvae , frog , algal blooms etc .
The Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Amendment Act, 2018
The Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Amendment Bill, 2018 was introduced in Lok Sabha by the Minister for Social Justice and Empowerment August 3, 2018 which sought to amend the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989.
The Act prohibited the commission of offences against members of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes and established special courts for the trial of such offences and the rehabilitation of victims.
In 2018, the Supreme Court stated that for persons accused of committing an offence under the Act, approval of the Senior Superintendent of Police will be required before an arrest is made.
Further, the Deputy Superintendent of Police may conduct a preliminary enquiry to find out whether there is a prima facie case under the Act. The Bill stated that the investigating officer will not require the approval of any authority for the arrest of an accused.
Further, it provides that a preliminary enquiry will not be required for the registration of a First Information Report against a person accused under the Act.
The Act stated that persons accused of committing an offence under the Act cannot apply for anticipatory bail. The Bill sought to clarify that this provision will apply despite any judgements or orders of a court that provide otherwise.
However, the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Amendment Act, 2018 was enacted to reverse these changes. Section 18A was inserted in the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989, which provided that:
preliminary enquiry shall not be required for registration of a First Information Report against any person; or
the investigating officer shall not require approval for the arrest, if necessary, of any person, against whom an accusation of having committed an offence under this Act has been made and no procedure other than that provided under this Act or the Code shall apply.
Recently, the Supreme Court recalled its 2018 order that diluted provisions of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989.
sources of sulfur dioxide
Sulfur dioxide is a gas released by both human and natural sources. It is a colourless gas with a pungent, irritating odour and taste. Sulfur dioxide is used in many industrial processes such as chemical preparation, refining, pulp-making and solvent extraction. In addition, it is used in the preparation and preservation of food due to its ability to prevent bacterial growth and browning of fruit.
Human Sources
Burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas are the main source of sulfur dioxide emissions. Coal fired power stations, in particular, are major sources of sulfur dioxide, with coal-burning accounting for 50 per cent of annual emissions, as explained by the Tropospheric Emission Monitoring Internet Service (TEMIS). Moreover, oil-burning accounts for a further 25-30 per cent.
Sulfur dioxide emissions are released primarily as a result of generated electricity through fossil fuel burning power stations. Additional smaller sources of sulfur dioxide are released from industrial processes. These include extracting metal from ore and the burning of fuels with a high sulfur content by locomotives, large ships and non-road equipment.
Natural Sources
Volcanic eruptions release large quantities of sulfur dioxide into the air. The vast quantities of sulfur dioxide released during one eruption can be enough to alter the global climate. Similarly, hot springs release sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere. Sulfur dioxide can even be produced by the reaction of hydrogen sulfide with the oxygen in the air. Hydrogen sulfide is released from marshes and regions in which biological decay is taking place.
Eutrophication
Eutrophication is the natural aging of a lake by biological enrichment of its water.
With time, streams draining into the lake introduce nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus, which encourage the growth of aquatic organisms. As the lake’s fertility increases, plant and animal life burgeons, and organic remains begin to be deposited on the lake bottom. Over the centuries, as silt and organic debris pile up, the lake grows shallower and warmer, with warm-water organisms supplanting those that thrive in a cold environment. Marsh plants take root in the shallows and begin to fill in the original lake basin. Eventually, the lake gives way to large masses of floating plants (bog), finally converting into land.
In the field of ecology, the term stratification refers to
The process of identification and enumeration of plant and animal species of an ecosystem gives its species composition.
The vertical distribution of different species occupying different levels is called stratification. For example, trees occupy top vertical strata or layer of a forest, shrubs the second and herbs and grasses occupy the bottom layers.
Biomining
Delhi municipal corporation has started the process of “biomining and bioremediation” of the three landfills in Delhi namely Bhalswa, Okhla and Ghazipur.
Biomining is the process of using microorganisms (microbes) to extract metals of economic interest from rock ores or mine waste. Biomining techniques may also be used to clean up sites that have been polluted with metals.
Valuable metals are commonly bound up in solid minerals. Some microbes can oxidize those metals, allowing them to dissolve in water. This is the basic process behind most biomining, which is used for metals that can be more easily recovered when dissolved than from the solid rocks.
A different biomining technique, for metals which are not dissolved by the microbes, uses microbes to break down the surrounding minerals, making it easier to recover the metal of interest directly from the remaining rock.
Most current biomining operations target valuable metals like copper, uranium, nickel, and gold that are commonly found in sulfidic (sulfur-bearing) minerals.
Microbes are especially good at oxidizing sulfidic minerals, converting metals like iron and copper into forms that can dissolve more easily.
Other metals, like gold, are not directly dissolved by this microbial process, but are made more accessible to traditional mining techniques because the minerals surrounding these metals are dissolved and removed by microbial processes.
When the metal of interest is directly dissolved, the biomining process is called “bioleaching,” and when the metal of interest is made more accessible or “enriched” in the material left behind, it is called “biooxidation.” Both processes involve microbial reactions that can happen anywhere the microbes, rocks, and necessary nutrients, like oxygen, occur together.
Bioremediation is the treatment of pollutants or waste (as in an oil spill, contaminated groundwater, or an industrial process) by the use of microorganisms (such as bacteria) that break down the undesirable substances.
Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate
UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate assesses the impacts of climate change on ocean, coastal, polar and mountain ecosystems, and the human communities that depend on them.
According to the report, the global ocean has warmed unabated since 1970 and has taken up more than 90% of the excess heat in the climate system, with consequences now visible in increased ocean acidification, stratification and loss of oxygen.
The report underscores the urgency of prioritizing “timely, ambitious and coordinated action” to address “unprecedented” and enduring changes in the ocean and cryosphere.
According to the report, global warming has already reached 1°C above preindustrial levels, with: profound consequences for ecosystems and people; a warmer, more acidic and less productive ocean; melting glaciers and ice sheets causing increased sea level rise; and coastal extreme events becoming more severe.
Ecotypes refers to the species having a wide range of distribution which evolve genetically adapted local populations. In this context, consider the following statements with reference to Ecotypes:
Ecotypes differ from each other on the basis of morphological and physiological characters.
Different ecotypes of a species are inter-fertile.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
Usually, species having a wide range of distribution evolve genetically adapted local populations, called ecotypes. Ecotypes differ from each other on the basis of morphological and physiological characters. Hence, statement 1 is correct.
Ecotypes are inter-fertile. Though the different ecotypes of a species are morphologically and genetically distinct, yet because of their inter-fertility, they are put into one taxonomic species. Hence, statement 2 is correct.
If a plant has high ozone-forming potential, it means
(a) the plant has high potential to absorb atmospheric ozone from its surroundings.
(b) it releases volatile organic compounds in high amounts.
(c) it has developed special mechanism to store ozone in its inter cellular spaces.
(d) it can convert gaseous form of ozone to liquid phase.
occurs naturally in small (trace) amounts in the upper atmosphere (the stratosphere). Ozone can be formed when volatile organic compounds (including those from plants, automobile, and industrial sources) combine with nitrogen oxide emissions (often from vehicles or fuel combustion) in the presence of sunlight. Urban trees reduce air pollution by having particulates and gases deposit on their leaves and branches. On the other hand, trees can potentially reduce air quality through a range of mechanisms, one being the emission of organic compounds that can lead to ozone formation. The Volatile organic compounds (VOC) emitted by urban plants could trigger the formation of ground-level (bad) ozone. A plant's ozone-forming potential is determined by its ability to release the VOCs into the atmosphere. Hence option (b) is the correct answer.
planetary boundaries
In 2009, a group of 28 internationally renowned scientists proposed to identify the nine processes that regulate the stability and resilience of the Earth system.
The scientists proposed quantitative planetary boundaries within which humanity can continue to develop and thrive for generations to come. Crossing these boundaries increases the risk of generating large-scale abrupt or irreversible environmental changes. Since then the planetary boundaries framework has generated enormous interest within science, policy, and practice.
According to the paradigm, transgressing one or more planetary boundaries may be deleterious or even catastrophic due to the risk of crossing thresholds that will trigger non-linear, abrupt environmental change within continental- to planetary-scale systems. The Earth system process boundaries mark the safe zone for the planet to the extent that they are not crossed.
geological time scale
Blue green algae: Pre-cambrian era
Fish: Palaezoic era
Frog: Mesozoic era
Ape: Cainozoic era
Which of the following can aid in the cooling of earth?
- Sulphates from the volcanic eruption
- Salt particles
- Pure nitrates
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
(a) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 2 only
(d) 1 and 3 only
The Sun provides the energy that drives Earth’s climate, but not all of the energy that reaches the top of the atmosphere finds its way to the surface. That’s because aerosols—and clouds seeded by them—reflect about a quarter of the Sun’s energy back to space.
Although most aerosols reflect sunlight, some also absorb it. An aerosol’s effect on light depends primarily on the composition and color of the particles. Broadly speaking, bright-colored or translucent particles tend to reflect radiation in all directions and back towards space. Darker aerosols can absorb significant amounts of light.
Pure sulfates and nitrates reflect nearly all radiation they encounter, cooling the atmosphere.
Salt particles tend to reflect all the sunlight they encounter, thus helps in cooling the earth.
Aerosols can have a major impact on climate when they scatter light. In 1991, the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines ejected more than 20 million tons of sulfur dioxide—a gas that reacts with other substances to produce sulfate aerosol—as high as 60 kilometers (37 miles) above the surface, creating particles in the stratosphere. Those bright particles remained above the clouds and didn’t get washed from the sky by rain; they settled only after several years.
Climatologists predicted global temperatures would drop as a result of that global sulfate infusion.
On the other hand all the green house gases ( water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, fluorinated gases), warms the earth’s atmosphere.
With reference to Geothermal Energy, consider the following statements:
- It is a renewable source of energy which unlike solar and wind energy remains available throughout the year.
- Iceland is the world’s largest producer of geothermal energy.
- There are no emissions associated with the utilization of geothermal energy.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1 and 3 only
Geothermal energy is generated in over 20 countries. The United States is the world’s largest producer, and the largest geothermal development in the world is The Geysers north of San Francisco in California. In Iceland, many of the buildings and even swimming pools are heated with geothermal hot water. Iceland has at least 25 active volcanoes and many hot springs and geysers.
There are many advantages of geothermal energy. It can be extracted without burning a fossil fuel such as coal, gas, or oil. Geothermal fields produce only about one-sixth of the carbon dioxide that a relatively clean natural-gas-fueled power plant produces. Binary plants release essentially no emissions. Unlike solar and wind energy, geothermal energy is always available, 365 days a year. It’s also relatively inexpensive; savings from direct use can be as much as 80 percent over fossil fuels.
But it has some environmental problems. The main concern is the release of hydrogen sulfide, a gas that smells like rotten egg at low concentrations. Another concern is the disposal of some geothermal fluids, which may contain low levels of toxic materials. Although geothermal sites are capable of providing heat for many decades, eventually specific locations may cool down.
Sabka Vishwas Legacy Dispute Resolution Scheme?
Ministry of Finance launched Sabka Vishwas-Legacy Dispute Resolution Scheme, 2019. The objective of the Scheme is to free a large segment of the taxpayers from the legacy taxes. The Scheme is specially tailored to free a large number of small taxpayers of their pending disputes with the tax administration.
The scheme will help the taxpayers for closing their pending disputes relating to legacy Service Tax and Central Excise cases that are now subsumed under GST so they can focus on GST.
Dispute resolution and amnesty are the two main components of the Scheme:1. The dispute resolution component is aimed at liquidating the legacy cases of Central Excise and Service Tax that are subsumed in GST and are pending in litigation at various forums.2. The amnesty component of the Scheme offers an opportunity to taxpayers to pay the outstanding tax and be free of any other consequences under the law.
The most attractive aspect of the Scheme is that it provides substantial relief in the tax dues for all categories of cases as well as full waiver of interest, fine, penalty. In all these cases, there would be no other liability of interest, fine or penalty. There is also a complete amnesty from prosecution.
Which of the following is/are the possible impacts of excess carbon in the atmosphere?
- Drastic decrease in plant productivity
- Glacial melt
- Increase in the pH level of Ocean
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
(a) 2 only
(b) 1 and 3 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
Carbon in the Earth’s atmosphere exists in two main forms: carbon dioxide and methane. Both of these gases absorb and retain heat in the atmosphere and are partially responsible for the greenhouse effect. Methane produces a larger greenhouse effect per volume as compared to carbon dioxide, but it exists in much lower concentrations and is more short-lived than carbon dioxide, making carbon dioxide the more important greenhouse gas of the two. Increase in average global temperature causes glacial melt. Hence statement 2 is correct.
Ocean acidification is a direct consequence of increased human induced carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere. The ocean absorbs over 25% of all anthropogenic emissions from the atmosphere each year. As CO2 dissolves in sea water it forms carbonic acid, thereby decreasing the ocean’s pH, leading to a suite of changes collectively known as ocean acidification. Hence statement 3 is not correct.
Carbon dioxide is essential for plant and phytoplankton growth. An increase in carbon dioxide could increase growth by fertilizing those few species of phytoplankton and ocean plants (like sea grasses) that take carbon dioxide directly from the water. With more atmospheric carbon dioxide available to convert to plant matter in photosynthesis, plants will be able to grow more. This increased growth is referred to as carbon fertilization.
Consider the following statements with reference to the climate feedback mechanism:
- A negative feedback has a warming effect, while positive feedback has a cooling effect.
- Ice albedo feedback is a strong negative feedback process.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
Climate feedbacks: These are the processes that can either amplify or diminish the effects of climate forcings. Feedback that increases an initial warming is called “positive feedback.” A feedback that reduces an initial warming is a “negative feedback.” Hence statement 1 is not correct.
Scientists are aware of a number of positive feedbacks loops in the climate system. One example is melting of ice. The ice albedo effect is simply a name for how ice and snow reflect solar radiation, and thus help keep the Earth cool. Since a cool Earth also tends to have more ice and snow, the ice albedo effect is an example of a positive climate feedback. Because ice is light-coloured and reflective, a large proportion of the sunlight that hits it is bounced back to space, which limits the amount of warming it causes. But as the world gets hotter, ice melts, revealing the darker-coloured land or water below. The result is that more of the sun’s energy is absorbed, leading to more warming, which in turn leads to more ice melting and so on. Other examples of positive feedback mechanism include Water vapour release, carbon release into the atmosphere etc. Hence statement 2 is not correct.
However in case of cloud feedback, feedback type changes with behavior of clouds. Seen from below, clouds emit infrared radiation back to the surface, and so exert a warming effect; seen from above, clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space, and so exert a cooling effect. Whether the net effect is warming or cooling depends on details such as the type and altitude of the cloud. High clouds tend to trap more heat and therefore have a positive feedback, low clouds normally reflect more sunlight so they have a negative feedback.
With reference to the concept of Food Chain, consider the following statements:
- Species at higher trophic levels appear to be progressively more efficient in using their available food supply.
- The relative loss of energy due to respiration is progressively greater for higher trophic levels.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
Lindeman in 1942 pointed out a series of generalizations about the relationships between trophic levels within normal ecosystems. The main ones are:
the more remote an organism is from its initial source of energy the less probable that it will be dependent only on the preceding trophic level as a source of energy (that is, species) and above tend to be generalists rather than specialists in terms of feeding habit.
the relative loss of energy due to respiration is progressively greater for higher trophic levels.
species at higher trophic levels appear to be progressively more efficient in using their available food supply, because increased activity by predators increases their chances of encountering suitable prey species, and in general predators are less specific than their prey in food preferences.
Higher trophic levels tend to be less discrete than lower ones
Food chains tend to be reasonably short. Four vertical links is a common maximum.
Hence both the statements are correct.
